Table 3.
Association between outcome (congenital birth defect), exposure (household cooking fuel type usage) and all covariates 2017–2018 in Nepal
| Unadjusted | Adjusted Model | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | P-value | aOR (95% CI) | P-value | |
| Household cooking fuel type usage | ||||
| Cleaner fuel | Ref | Ref | ||
| Polluting fuel | 1.58 (1.24–2.02) | < 0.001 | 1.49 (1.16–1.91) | 0.002 |
| Air ventilation | ||||
| Yes | Reference | |||
| No | 1.53 (0.99–2.36) | 0.055 | 1.34 (0.86–2.07) | 0.195 |
| Maternal age | ||||
| < 20 | Ref | Ref | ||
| 20–26 | 0.67 (0.47–0.96) | 0.030 | 0.51 (0.34–0.75) | < 0.001 |
| 27–34 | 0.55 (0.36–0.85) | 0.007 | 0.41 (0.25–0.65) | < 0.001 |
| 35< | 0.96 (0.49–1.90) | 0.909 | 0.60 (0.29–1.25) | 0.170 |
| Maternal education | ||||
| No education | Ref | Ref | ||
| Basic education | 1.08 (0.71–1.64) | 0.728 | 1.28 (0.84–1.96) | 0.249 |
| Secondary and higher | 1.18 (0.84–1.66) | 0.337 | 2.00 (1.40–2.86) | < 0.001 |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Advantaged | Ref | Ref | ||
| Disadvantaged | 1.82 (1.41–2.34) | < 0.001 | 1.81 (1.39–2.35) | < 0.001 |
| Household monthly income | ||||
| Lowest | Ref | Ref | ||
| Lower | 0.65 (0.42–1.01) | 0.054 | 0.64 (0.42-1.00) | 0.042 |
| Higher | 0.51 (0.38–0.68) | < 0.001 | 0.53 (0.39–0.71) | < 0.001 |
| Highest | 0.41 (0.29–0.57) | < 0.001 | 0.49 (0.35–0.68) | < 0.001 |
| Sex of the child | ||||
| Male | Ref | Ref | ||
| Female | 1.45 (1.16–1.81) | 0.001 | 1.47 (1.17–1.83) | < 0.001 |
| Parity | ||||
| 0 previous births | Ref | Ref | ||
| 1 previous birth | 1.27 (0.98–1.64) | 0.070 | 1.64 (1.24–2.18) | < 0.001 |
| 2 or more previous births | 1.72 (1.30–2.30) | < 0.001 | 2.30 (1.66–3.20) | < 0.001 |
| Single or multiple pregnancy | ||||
| Single | Ref | Ref | ||
| Multiple | 2.88 (1.42–5.84) | 0.003 | 2.70 (1.32–5.52) | 0.007 |
Adjusted for clean vs. polluted fuel, ventilation, age stratified, maternal education, Ethnicity, income per month, sex of the newborn, parity and multiple delivery