Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies for association between meat intake and all-cause mortality.
| Author, Year of Publication, Country | Age * | No. of Participants |
Follow-Up (Years) † |
No. of Deaths |
Exposure | Exposure Assessment |
Comparison of Meat Intake |
Effect Size (95% CI) § |
Adjustment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhong, 2019, | 53.7 | 29,682 | 19 | 8875 | Red meat | FFQ | 2 vs. 0 servings/week | HR 1.03 (1.01–1.05) | 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11, |
| US | Processed | 2 vs. 0 servings/week | HR 1.03 (1.02–1.05) | 12,13,14,15,16,17,18 | |||||
| Piet A, 2019, | 55–69 | M 58,279 | 10 | 5797 | Red meat | FFQ | 140.4 vs. 41.3 g/day | HR 1.02 (0.86–1.2) | 1,2,4,5,6,9,11,14,19,20, |
| The Netherlands | W 62,573 | 3026 | Processed | 30.8 vs. 0 g/day | HR 1.21 (1.02–1.44) | 21,22,23,24,25,26,27 | |||
| Zheng, 2019, | M 30–55 | 27,916 | 409,073 ** | 5593 | Red meat | FFQ | >0.5/change of <0.15 serving/day | HR 1.10 (1.04–1.17) | 1,3,6,8,9,21,22,23,24,28 |
| US | W 40–75 | 53,553 | 804,685 ** | 8426 | Processed | >0.5/change of <0.15 serving/day | HR 1.13 (1.04–1.23) | 29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36 | |
| Alshahrani, | >25 | 72,149 | 11.8 | 7961 | Red meat | FFQ | 41.7 vs. 4 g/day | HR 1.17 (1.05–1.32) | 1,2,3,4,5,6,9,18,21,22, |
| 2019, US | Processed | 9.4 vs. 0.7 g/day | HR 1.16 (1.04–1.29) | 24,32,33,34,35,36,37,38 | |||||
| and Canada | Combined | 42.8 vs. 1.4 g/day | HR 1.25 (1.12–1.40) | 39,40,41,42,43,44,45,4647,48 | |||||
| Mejborn, 2020, | 15–75 | 9848 | NR | 640 | Red meat | 7-day pre-coded | >97 vs. <41 g/day | HR 0.86 (0.67–1.12) | 2,3,4,5,6,8,9,24 |
| Denmark | Processed | food diary | >58 vs. <19 g/day | HR 1.02 (0.82–1.26) | |||||
| Argyridou, 2019, UK | 40–69 | 419,075 | 7 | 15,058 | Combined | FFQ | 7.0 vs. 1.5 servings/week | HR 1.252 (1.172–1.338) | 1,2,3,4,6,8,9,11,14,24, 47,48,49,50,51,52 |
| Dominguez, | >45 | 18,540 | 9.5 | 255 | Red meat | 136-item | >7 vs. <3 servings/week | HR 1.86 (1.19–2.93) | 2,4,5,6,9,24,25,53,56, |
| 2017, | Processed | FFQ | >7 vs. <3 servings/week | HR 1.57 (0.76–3.24) | 74,82,83,84 | ||||
| Spain | Combined | >7 vs. <3 servings/week | HR 1.31 (0.75–2.30) | ||||||
| Etemadi, | 50–71 | M 316,505 | 15.6 | 84,848 | Red meat | 124-item | 50.3 vs. 6.9 g/1000 kcal | HR 1.20 (1.17–1.22) | 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,11,14,24, |
| 2017, US | W 220,464 | 43,676 | Processed | FFQ | 17.2 vs. 2.3 g/1000 kcal | HR 1.15 (1.13–1.17) | 29,30,37,54,55,56,57,58 | ||
| Sheehy, | 38 | W 56,314 | 22 | 5054 | Red meat | FFQ | 1.0 vs. 0.01 serving/day | HR 1.47 (1.33–1.62) | 4,5,6,8,21,24,28,30,60, |
| 2020, US | Processed | 1.2 vs. 0.01 serving/day | HR 1.40 (1.28–1.55) | 61,62 | |||||
| Saito, | 45–74 | M 40,072 | 14 | 6266 | Red meat | FFQ | 92.9 vs. 14.3 g/d | HR 1.13 (1.02–1.26) | 1,5,6,9,11,14,15,16,18, |
| 2020, Japan | Processed | 8.4 vs. 1.3 g/d | HR 0.98 (0.91–1.07) | 21,22,24,47,63,64,65 | |||||
| W 47,435 | 3620 | Red meat | 90.3 vs. 13.6 g/d | HR 1.08 (0.95–1.24) | |||||
| Processed | 11.7 vs. 2.1 g/d | HR 1.05 (0.95–1.17) | |||||||
| Rohrmann, | 35–69 | 448,568 | 12.7 | 26,344 | Red meat | FFQ | 160+ vs. 10–19.9 g/d | HR 1.10 (0.98–1.24) | 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,9,24,31,59 |
| 2013, Europe | Processed | 160+ vs. 10–19.9 g/d | HR 1.43 (1.24–1.64) | ||||||
| Sinha, | 50–71 | 500,000 | 10 | M 47,976 | Red meat | 124-item | 68.1 vs. 9.3 g/1000 kcal | HR 1.31 (1.27–1.35) | 4,6,8,9,11,14,19,24,26 |
| 2009, US | Processed | FFQ | 19.4 vs. 5.1 g/1000 kcal | HR 1.16 (1.12–1.19) | 30,37,66 | ||||
| W 23,276 | Red meat | 65.9 vs. 9.1 g/1000 kcal | HR 1.36 (1.30–1.43) | ||||||
| Processed | 16.0 vs. 3.8 g/1000 kcal | HR 1.25 (1.20–1.31) | |||||||
| Pan, | NA | M 37,698 | 22 | M 8926 | Red meat | FFQ | 2.36 vs. 0.22 servings/day | HR 1.29 (1.20–1.38) | 1,3,5,6,8,9,11,14,21,22, |
| 2012, US | Processed | 2.36 vs. 0.22 servings/day | HR 1.27 (1.19–1.36) | 24,28,29,30,34,35,36,43 | |||||
| Combined | 2.36 vs. 0.22 servings/day | HR 1.37 (1.27–1.47) | |||||||
| W 83,644 | 28 | W 15,000 | Red meat | 3.1 vs. 0.53 servings/day | HR 1.19 (1.13–1.25) | ||||
| Processed | 3.1 vs. 0.53 servings/day | HR 1.20 (1.14–1.27) | |||||||
| Combined | 3.1 vs. 0.53 servings/day | HR 1.24 (1.17–1.30) | |||||||
| Takata, | 40–74 | M 61,483 | 334,281 ** | 2733 | Red meat | FFQ | 114.9 vs. 20.0 g/day | HR 1.18 (1.02–1.35) | 1,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,14,47, |
| 2013, China | W 74,941 | 803,265 ** | 4210 | Red meat | 94.8 vs. 15.0 g/day | HR 0.92 (0.82–1.03) | 48,59,67,68,69 | ||
| Bellavia, 2016, | 45–83 | M 40,089 | 16 | 10,423 | Red meat | FFQ | 140 vs. 31 g/day | HR 1.21 (1.13–1.29) | 2,4,5,7,8,9,22,24,47 |
| Sweden | W 34,556 | 7486 | |||||||
| Kappeler, 2013, US |
>18 | 17,611 | 22 | M 1908 | Red meat Processed |
FFQ | 45+ vs. 0–6 times/week 45+ vs. 0–6 times/week |
HR 1.24 (0.76–2.02) HR 1.06 (0.75–1.50) |
1,2,3,6,8,9,11,14,21,22,24,26,29,32,35,36,37,61 |
| W 1775 | Red meat | 45+ vs. 0–6 times/week | HR 1.49 (0.76–2.94) | 73,74 | |||||
| Processed | 45+ vs. 0–6 times/week | HR 1.16 (0.86–1.55) | |||||||
| Lee, 2013, | 17–92 | M 112,310 | 6.6–15.5 | 23,515 | Red meat | FFQ | Q4/Q1 | HR 0.93 (0.84–1.02) | 1,4,5,6,9,11,14,24,76 |
| Asian | W 184,411 | 16,699 | Red meat | Q4/Q1 | HR 0.93 (0.86–1.00) | ||||
| Whiteman, | 35–64 | 10,522 | 9 | 514 | Red meat | FFQ | 4–7 vs. <1 day week-1 | HR 0.71 (0.55–0.92) | 1,2,6 |
| 1999, UK | Processed | 4–7 vs. <1 day week-1 | HR 1.05 (0.62–1.76) | ||||||
| Farvid, 2016, Iran | 51.6 | 42,403 | 11 | 3291 | Red meat | 0.43 vs. 0.02 serving/day | HR 1.04 (0.93–1.17) | 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,24,30,37,51,70,76 | |
| Iqbal, 2021, | 35–70 | 134,297 | 9.5 | 7789 | Red meat | FFQ | ≥250/<50 g/week | HR 0.93 (0.85, 1.02) | 1,2,4,5,6,8,11,12,14, |
| 21 countries | Processed | ≥250/<50 g/week | HR 1.51 (1.08, 2.10) | 41,22,78,79,80 | |||||
| Sun, 2021, | 50–79 | 102,521 | 18.1 | 25,976 | Red meat | FFQ | 3.2/0.3 oz equivalent/d | HR 1.05 (0.99–1.10) | 1,3,4,5,6,8,9,11,14,17 |
| US | Processed | 1.0/0.01 oz equivalent/d | HR 1.06 (1.01–1.10) | 22,41,43,67,71,74,81 | |||||
| Combined | 3.9/0.4 oz equivalent/d | HR 1.10 (1.05–1.15) |
FFQ = food frequency questionnaire; HR = hazard ratio; M = men CI = confidence interval; NR = not reported; W = women. * Presented as mean or range. ** Person-years. † Number of years that individuals were followed up in the prospective cohort studies. § These effect sizes are for comparison of the highest and the lowest categories. Adjustments: age (1), sex (2), race/ethnicity (3), educational level (4), total energy (5), smoking status (6), smoking pack-years (7), physical activity (8), alcohol intake (9), hormone therapy (10), fruits (11), legumes (12), potatoes (13), vegetables (14), low-fat dairy products (15), high-fat dairy products (16), sugar-sweetened beverages (17), eggs (18), number of cigarettes smoked per day (19), years of smoking (20), history of physician-diagnosed hypertension (21), history of physician-diagnosed diabetes (22), body height (23), BMI (24), non-occupational physical activity (25), use of nutritional supplements (26), in women postmenopausal HRT (27), family history of myocardial infarction (28), family history of diabetes (29), family history of cancer (30), weight (31), aspirin use (32), multivitamin use (33), menopausal status (34), postmenopausal hormone therapy use for women (35), physician-diagnosed hypercholesterolemia (36), marital status (37), exercise (38), sleep (39), the use of statin (40), the use of blood pressure medications (41), cruciferous vegetables (42), whole grain (43), nuts (44), seeds (45), total dairy (46),fish (47), unprocessed poultry (48), Townsend score (49), employment (50), number of medications (51), salt added to food (52), time TV viewing (53), quintiles of a composite deprivation index (54), perceived health at baseline (55), history of heart disease (56), history of stroke (57), usual activity throughout the day (58), total meat intake (59), geographic region (60), neighborhood SES (socioeconomic status) (61), Alternative Healthy Eating Index without red meat (62), quartile of metabolic equivalent task-hours/d (63), sodium (64), total fat (65), time since quitting for former smokers (66), income (67), occupation (68), comorbidity index (69), systolic blood pressure (70), proteinuria (71), overall health (72), use of ibuprofen (73), family history of hypercholesterolemia (74), history of gallstones (75), residency (76), opium use (77), wealth score (78), location (79), starchy foods (80), unopposed estrogen use (81), year of entering the cohort (82), history of depression (83), following special diets at baseline (84).