Table 7.
Percentages of users and non-users of specific micronutrients among children aged 7–10 years (n = 296) in exceedance of the upper intake level (UL) through the diet alone and when also considering supplement use (% (95% CI) and the mean (SD) and median (95% CI) intakes of micronutrients
| Micronutrient | UL | Non-users | Users | Non-users | Users | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dietary intake | Dietary intake | Total intake | Dietary intake | Dietary intake | Total intake | |||||||||
| > UL | > 150% | > UL | > 150% | > UL | > 150% | Mean (SD) | Median (95% CI) | Mean (SD) | Median (95% CI) | Mean (SD) | Median (95% CI) | |||
| Retinol | µg | 1500 | 11.5 (6.4–18.5) | 3.3 (0.9–8.2) | 14.9 (10.0–21.1) | 4.6 (2.2–8.9) | 20.7 (14.9–27.5) | 6.9 (3.6–11.7) | 798 (51) | 600 (237–1889) | 862 (51) | 632 (232–2259) | 1100 (53) | 886 (375–2483)*** |
| Vitamin D | µg | 25 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 1.1 (0.1–4.0) | 0.5 (0.0–3.1) | 3.0 (0.2) | 2.2 (1.0- 8.7) | 2.6 (0.2) | 2.0 (1.0–5.6) | 9.3 (0.5) | 8.7 (2.5–20.5)*** |
| Vitamin Eb | α-TEc | 160 | – | – | – | – | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 7.7 (0.2) | 7.2 (4.3–12.4) | 7.8 (0.2) | 7.2 (4.3–13.7) | 12.1 (0.3) | 11.3 (6.5–19.6)*** |
| Thiamin | mg TGLd | 25 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 1.3 (0.0) | 1.2 (0.7–2.0) | 1.2 (0.0) | 1.2 (0.7–1.8) | 1.7 (0.0) | 1.8 (1.0–2.4)*** |
| Riboflavin | mg GLe | 22 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 1.7 (0.1) | 1.6 (0.8–3.0) | 1.7 (0.0) | 1.6 (0.9–2.5) | 2.2 (0.0) | 2.2 (1.2–3.2)*** |
| Niacin | NEf | 350 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 24.8 (0.6) | 23.7 (12.8–36.6) | 23.3 (0.5) | 22.4 (14.5–34.7) | 28.7 (0.5) | 28.4(19.2–40.2)*** |
| Vitamin B6 | mg | 10 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 1.3 (0.0) | 1.3 (0.7–1.9) | 1.3 (0.0) | 1.2 (0.8–1.9) | 1.9 (0.3) | 1.9 (1.1–2.7)*** |
| Folic acidb | mg | 400 | – | – | – | – | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 297 (9) | 286 (166–458) | 288 (7) | 270 (169–460) | 344 (7) | 323 (207–522)*** |
| Vitamin B12 | µg GLe | 1000 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 5.7 (0.2) | 5.1 (2.1–11.0) | 5.6 (0.2) | 5.1 (2.3–10.0) | 6.4 (0.2) | 6.1 (2.9–10.6)** |
| Vitamin C | mg TGLd | 500 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0.6 (0–3.2) | 0 (0–2.1) | 112 (5) | 99 (45–231) | 103 (4) | 88 (45–195) | 137 (6) | 122 (61–249)*** |
| Calcium | mg | 2500 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 1090 (35) | 1029 (576–1813) | 1072 (24) | 1030 (613–1641) | 1136 (25) | 1097 (657–1731) |
| Magnesium b | mg | 250 | – | – | – | – | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 310 (7) | 301 (192–434) | 304 (6) | 287 (191–458) | 318 (6) | 301 (210–481) |
| Iron | mg TGLd | 20 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 6.4** (3.3–11.2) | 0.6 (0–3.2) | 9.7 (0.2) | 9.5 (6.3–13.6) | 9.5 (0.2) | 9.0 (6.2–14.6) | 14.0 (0.3) | 13.9 (8.7–20.6)*** |
| Zinc | mg | 13 | 15.2 (9.4–22.7) | 0.8 (0–4.4) | 14.0 (9.2–20.2) | 0 (0–2.1) | 45.6** (38.0–53.4) | 0.6 (0–3.2) | 10.4 (0.3) | 9.6 (6.0–15-2) | 10.1 (0.2) | 9.8 (6.1–14.5) | 12.7 (0.2) | 12.8 (8.1–17.5)*** |
| Iodine | µg | 300 | 26.4 (18.9–35.0) | 7.2 (3.3–13-2) | 15.2* (10.2–21.5) | 5.3 (2.4–9.8) | 26.3 (19.9–33.6) | 5.8 (2.8–10.5) | 252 (12) | 214 (99–535) | 223 (7) | 213 (111–462) | 261 (8) | 247 (128–493)* |
| Selenium | µg | 130 | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0.0–3.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 0 (0–2.1) | 43.7(1.2) | 41.0 (23.7–68.0) | 41.5 (0.9) | 40.5 (24.9–61.3) | 53.2 (1.1) | 52.0 (31.9–76.2)*** |
*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001 (user vs non-user)
aIn 2012 the UL for vitamin D was increased from 25 µg/day to 50 µg/day
bThe UL applies to supplements only
cUL for α-tocopherol equivalents (α-TEs). 1 α-TE = 1 mg RRR α-tocopherol
dtemporary guidance level (TGL) suggested by a Danish expert group [26]
eGuidance level (GL) established by a British expert group (Expert group on Vitamins and Minerals 2003) and extrapolated to children by Rasmussen et al. [26]
fNiacin equivalents (NEs). 1 NE = 1 mg niacin = 60 mg tryptophan