Table 1.
AD immunosensors that can detect specific autoantibodies.
| Type of Signal Transduction | Immunoassay Principle—Use of Secondary Antibody | Autoantibody-Biomarker | Limit of Detection (LoD)/ Concentration Range |
Autoimmune Disease | Biological Sample | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electrochemical (Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-oncostatin-M receptor autoantibodies | - | Systemic sclerosis (SSc) | Human serum from healthy individuals and SSc patients | [41] |
| Electrochemical (Voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-citrullinated peptide/protein autoantibodies (ACPAs) |
15 pg mL−1/ 8–250 pg mL−1 |
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) | Human serum (spiked) | [18] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | ACPAs | 0.82 IU ** mL−1/ 1–800 IU mL |
RA | Human serum (spiked) |
[42] |
| Optical (Spectral correlation interferometry—SCI) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a non-labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-thyroglobulin (anti-TG) and anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) autoantibodies | 6 IU mL−1 (anti-TG) 1.7 IU mL−1 (anti-TPO)/ 6–400 IU mL−1 (anti-TG) 1.7–860 IU mL−1 (anti-TPO) |
Autoimmune thyroid diseases | Patients’ serum | [46] |
| Piezoelectric quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-phospholipase A2 receptor (anti-PL2R) autoantibodies | 0.1 μg mL−1/ 0.5–100 μg mL−1 |
Primary membranous nephropathy (pMN) | Patients’ serum | [44] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Immunoglobulin M—rheumatoid factor (IgM-RF) | 0.22 IU mL−1/ 10–200 IU mL−1 |
RA | Human serum (spiked) |
[47] |
| Electrochemical (Voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tissue transglutaminase (anti-tTG) autoantibodies | 1.8 ng mL−1/ 0.005–1 μg mL−1 |
Celiac disease (CD) | Serum from healthy individuals and CD patients | [50] |
| Electrochemical (Impedance spectroscopy and square wave voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Autoantibodies on red blood cells (RBCs) | - | Autoimmune hemolytic anemia | Healthy and “sick” RBCs (i.e., RBCs from healthy and affected individuals) | [52] |
| Optical (Colorimetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | IgM-RF | 4.15 IU mL−1 | RA | Human plasma (spiked) | [48] |
| Electrochemical (Electro-chemiluminescence—ECL) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-myeloperoxidase (anti-MPO) autoantibodies |
15.68 fg mL−1/ 50 fg mL−1–1 ng mL−1 |
Anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitides | Human serum (spiked) | [55] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) autoantibodies |
8 μg mL−1 | Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) | Patients’ serum | [56] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies (IgG and IgA) |
1.4 AU ** mL−1 (IgG) and 3.2 AU mL−1 (IgA)/ up to 30 AU mL−1 (IgG and IgA) |
CD | Patients’ serum LOD: 3.2 AU **/mL (IgA), 1.4 AU/mL (IgG) |
[57] |
| Electrochemical (Electro-chemiluminescence—ECL) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-glutamate decarboxylase (anti-GAD) autoantibodies | 0.10 ng mL−1/ 0.30–50 ng mL−1 |
Type-1 diabetes (T1D) or latent autoimmune diabetes in adult | Patients’ serum | [58] |
| Piezoelectric Quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-TRIM21 and anti-TROVE2 autoantibodies | 0.01 U ** mL−1 (anti-TRIM21) 0.005 U mL−1 (anti-TROVE2)/ 0.32–7.17 U mL−1 (anti-TRIM21) 0.07–1.46 U mL−1 (anti-TROVE2) |
SLE | Serum from healthy individuals and SLE patients | [59] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | 0.26 μg mL−1/ 0.26–6.9 μg mL−1 |
CD | Serum from CD patients | [60] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies (IgA and IgG) | 1.7 AU mL−1 (IgA) and 2.7 AU mL−1 (IgG)/ Up to 30 AU mL−1 (IgA and IgG) |
CD | Serum from pediatric patients | [61] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-Myelin Basic Protein (anti-MBP) autoantibodies | 0.1495 ng mL−1/ 0.4875–2500 ng mL−1 |
Multiple sclerosis (MS) | Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum from relapsing/remitting MS patients | [62] |
| Electrochemical (CV) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | - | CD | Serum from CD patients | [63] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used |
Anti-tTG autoantibodies | 390 ng mL−1 | CD | Serum from CD patients | [64] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | ACPAs | - | RA | Serum from RA patients | [65] |
| Piezoelectric Quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | ACPAs | - | RA | Serum from RA patients | [66] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | - | CD | Serum from CD patients | [67] |
| Piezoelectric Quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-dsDNA autoantibodies |
- | SLE | Serum from healthy individuals and patients with bronchial asthma and SLE | [68] |
| Optical (Surface plasmon resonance–SPR) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-GAD autoantibodies | - | T1D | (Buffer) | [69] |
* In the original papers, the immunocomplexes formed (antigen–autoantibody/analyte–secondary antibody) were characterized as “sandwich”. ** U: units; IU: international units; AU: arbitrary/antibody units.