Table 2.
AD immunosensors that can detect protein biomarkers other than autoantibodies.
| Type of Signal Transduction | Immunoassay Principle | Protein-Biomarker | LoD/ Concentration Range |
Autoimmune Disease | Biological Sample | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Optical (Multi Area Reflectance Spectroscopy—MARS) |
Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | Procalcitonin and interleukin-6 (IL-6) | 2.0 ng mL−1 (PCT) and 0.01 ng mL−1 (IL-6)/ up to 100.0 ng mL−1 (PCT) and up to 10.0 ng mL−1 (IL-6) |
Various inflammatory/autoimmune diseases | Human serum | [74] |
| Electrochemical (Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Oncostatin-M receptor (sOSMR) protein | 0.42 pg mL−1/ 0.005–500 pg mL−1 |
Systemic sclerosis (SSc) | Serum from healthy individuals and SSc patients | [41] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | B cell activation factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-induced ligand (APRIL) | 0.33 pg mL−1 (BAFF) and 16.4 pg mL−1 (APRIL) / 1.1–100 pg mL−1 (BAFF) and 0.05–20 ng mL−1 (APRIL) |
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) | Serum from healthy individuals and SLE patients | [76] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | B cell activation factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-induced ligand (APRIL) | 0.08 ng mL−1 (BAFF) and 0.06 ng mL−1 (APRIL) / 0.24–120 ng mL−1 (BAFF) and 0.19–25 ng mL−1 (APRIL) |
SLE | Serum from SLE patients | [77] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | CCL5 chemokine | 40 pg mL−1/ 0.1–300 ng mL−1 |
Multiple sclerosis (MS) | Serum from healthy individuals and MS patients | [78] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | IL-6 | 0.42 pg mL−1/ 0.97–250 pg mL−1 |
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) | Human serum (spiked) | [22] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | CXCL7 chemokine and MMP3 metalloproteinase | 0.8 ng mL−1 (CXCL7) and 1.2 pg mL−1 (MMP3)/ 1–75 ng mL−1 (CXCL7) and 2.0–2000 pg mL−1 (MMP3) |
RA | Serum from healthy individuals and RA patients | [79] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) | 0.085 pg mL−1/ 1–25 pg mL−1 |
Various inflammatory/autoimmune diseases | Serum and tears from healthy individuals; cerebrospinal fluid (CFS) from patients undergone routine lumbar puncture | [80] |
| Electrochemical (Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and EIS) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) and Tau proteins | 0.30 nM (MBP) and 0.15 nM (Tau) | MS | CSF and serum from MS patients | [82] |
| Electrochemical (Voltammetry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Insulin | 5 pM/ 5–200 pM |
Diabetes types I and II | Serum from diabetic patients | [83] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Interleukin-12 (IL-12) | 3.5 pg mL−1/ 0.1–500 pg mL−1 |
MS | Fetal bovine serum (FBS) | [84] |
| Electrochemical (Amperometry) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay |
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) | 0.02 ng mL−1/ 0.03–230 ng mL−1 |
RA | Serum from RA patients | [85] |
| Electrochemical (EIS) |
Non-competitive, direct-type assay | IL-12 | <100 fM | MS | (Buffer) | [86] |