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. 2023 Aug 11;30:66. doi: 10.1186/s12929-023-00961-z

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 5 — Osmotin restores the synaptic structures in pyramidal neurons and ameliorates cognitive deficits. a Representative photomicrograph of hippocampal (CA1, CA3, and DG) sections containing Nissl-positive neurons from NSE-hαSyn Tg mice (n = 6, biologically independent animals). Magnification: 50×. Scale bar represents 40 μm. Magnification: 200×. Scale bar represents 10 μm. b Representative immunofluorescent images of NeuN levels in the hippocampus regions of NSE-hαSyn Tg mice (n = 6, biologically independent animals). Scale bar represents 100 μm. b Representative immunofluorescent images of NeuN levels in the hippocampus regions of NSE-hαSyn Tg mice (n = 6, biologically independent animals). Scale bar represents 100 μm. c Representative examples of reconstructed hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons in NSE-hαSyn Tg mice. d, g Comparative analysis of the sums of the basal and apical dendrite length and density of pyramidal neurons. e Representative examples of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons from the secondary branch in NSE-hαSyn Tg mice. f Sholl analysis of reconstructed pyramidal neurons. h Comparative analysis of the total number of spines and the numbers of filopodia-like, thin, mushroom, and stubby spines. i, j Representative immunofluorescent images of SYP and PSD-95 levels in the cortex and CA1 regions of NSE-hαSyn Tg mice (n = 6, biologically independent animals). Scale bar represents 20 μm. k–n Immunoblot results of SYP, PSD-95, SNAP-25, p-CREB, and CREB levels in the cortex and hippocampus of NSE-hαSyn Tg mice (n = 6, biologically independent animals). o Representative swimming paths of mice in the MWM test. Representative histogram of the latency to target, target zone time, time in each quadrant, and average speed (n = 12, biologically independent animals). The data are presented as the mean ± SD and are representative of three independent experiments performed in triplicate. Significance was determined by using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni correction; ^#Comparison between control and NSE-hαSyn Tg mice, *Comparison between NSE-hαSyn Tg mice and osmotin-administered mice. ^#/*p < 0.05, ^##/**p < 0.01, and ^###/***p < 0.001