Figure 3.

Diagnostic and management flow chart for the evaluation of normal volume azoospermia in males. Note: Counselling for sperm donation, adoption, or child-free living are important options in each clinical scenario. FSH: follicle stimulating hormone; hCG: human chorionic gonadotropin; HMG: human menopausal hormone; IVF-ICSI: in vitro fertilization intracytoplasmic sperm injection; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; mTESE: microdissection testicular sperm extraction; NOA: non-obstructive azoospermia; rFSH: recombinant follicle stimulating hormone; SERM: selective estrogen receptor modulator; YCM: Y chromosome microdeletion.