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. 2021 Aug 18;1(1):3. doi: 10.1007/s44154-021-00003-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Signaling pathways triggered by cell wall-derived oligosaccharides. Cell wall-derived oligosaccharides function as elicitors recognized by pattern recognition receptor (PRRs) including WAKs, CERK1 and CEBiP to trigger immune response. Cellodextrins derived from cellulose induce the elevation of free cytosolic calcium, generation of ROS and upregulation of PR genes. Oligogalacturonic acids derived from pectin are perceived by WAK1 to activate MAPK cascade, which in turn elevates free cytosolic calcium and promotes ROS generation. In rice, trisaccharide 3¹-β-D-cellobiosyl-glucose (MLG43) and tetrasaccharide 3¹-β-D-cellotriosyl-glucose (MLG443) are perceived by OsCERK1-OsCEBiP complex, leading to ROS burst, MAPK activation and the expression of immune-responsive genes. Xyloglucan oligosaccharides are able to activate the MAPK cascade, deposition of callose, expression of PR genes and increase the biosynthesis of hormones. XA3XX from arabinoinxylan is able to trigger Ca²⁺ influxes, ROS burst, MAPK phosphorylation and the expression of PTI related genes