Table 2.

A summary of 15 gray matter brain regions and their associated functions and concussion-related symptoms.

Brain region	Associated functions	Concussion-related symptoms
Amygdala	• Emotional processing and learning • Memory • Fearfulness sensitivity • Self-motivation • Socio-emotional function	• Headache • Feeling “slow” or “foggy” • Difficulty concentrating • Difficulty remembering • Irritability • Sadness • Nervousness • More emotional • Trouble falling asleep • Loss of sleep
Anterior intra-parietal sulcus	• Visuomotor functions • Finger manipulation • Tactility • Eye movements • Vestibular and egocentric attention • Auditory coordinate location • Hierarchical structure processing • Memorizing geometry • Affected by light levels	• Light sensitivity • Noise sensitivity • Motor control problems • Visual problems • Feeling “slow”
Broca's area	• Language processing • Motor control with speech	• Feeling “slow” or “foggy” • Difficulty concentrating • Difficulty remembering • Speech and language problems
Hippocampus	• Every aspect of memory • Learning new tasks • Understanding verbal and spatial cues • Motivation • Executive function	• Feeling “foggy” • Difficulty remembering • Feeling more emotional • Sadness • Nervousness
Inferior parietal lobule	• Visuospatial navigation • Sound perception • Auditory memory • Saccadic eye movements • Egocentric decision-making • Emotional empathy • Speech and language processing • Reading and writing	• Headache • Balance problems • Dizziness • Light Sensitivity • Noise Sensitivity • Visual problems • Motor control problems • Feeling “slow” or “foggy” • Difficulty concentrating • Difficulty remembering
Insula	• Somatic, motor, and emotion • Tactility • Auditory • Taste • Pain • Speech production • Gastric motility • Patterned motor movements • Cardiovascular function • Decision-making tasks	• Headache • Nausea • Vomiting • Sensitivity to noise • Bodily pain • Feeling “slow” or “foggy” • Language problems • Irritability • Feeling more emotional
Lateral geniculate body	• Relay of visual input	• Visual problems • Sensitivity to light • Sensitivity to noise
Mammillary body	• Memory • Olfactory	• Headache • Loss of smell
	• Inability to understand smells • Spatial abilities	• Difficulty remembering
Medial geniculate body	• Auditory processing • Speech comprehension	• Headache • Sensitivity to noise • Nervousness
Premotor cortex	• Generate and plan motor movements • Proprioception and spatial awareness • Fine and gross motor coordination	• Headache • Nausea • Balance problems • Dizziness • Fatigue • Motor control problems • Feeling “slow” • Difficulty remembering • Language problems
Primary motor cortex	• Motor control • Movement execution • Sensory feedback	• Headache • Nausea • Vomiting • Balance problems • Fatigue • Motor control problems • Feeling “slow”
Primary somatosensory cortex	• Interpretation of all sensory information • Distinct localization of where sensory input originated	• Headache • Nausea • Vomiting • Balance problems • Sensitivity to light • Sensitivity to noise • Bodily pain • Numbness • Visual problems
Secondary somatosensory cortex	• Secondary processing and interpretation of sensory information	• Headache • Nausea • Vomiting • Balance problems • Dizziness • Sensitivity to light • Sensitivity to noise • Numbness • Visual problems • Bodily pain
Superior parietal lobule	• Somatosensory and visual interpretation for specific motor movements • Egocentric tasks • Emotion-relevant behavior • Auditory association	• Headache • Balance problems • Dizziness • Sensitivity to light • Motor control problems • Visual problems • Feeling “slow” • Difficulty remembering • Confusion
Visual cortex	• Processing of all visual information • Colors, shapes, motion, and light	• Headache • Nausea • Vomiting • Balance problems • Dizziness • Sensitivity to light • Visual problems