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. 2023 Aug 18;21:212. doi: 10.1186/s12964-023-01219-9

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 3 — SCFAs alleviate IBD and CRC by increasing intestinal barrier function and reducing endotoxin levels in the blood. SCFAs increase the intestinal barrier function, reduce the entry of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into the blood, induces naive T cells to differentiate into Tregs, inhibit the production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6 by intestinal macrophages, and inhibit the production of IL-8 by normal intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) to alleviate inflammation. Butyrate promotes CRC cell apoptosis by inhibiting C-AMP/P38-MAPK and increasing Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. Other abbreviations are: SCFA: short-chain fatty acid; GPCR: G protein-coupled receptor; FFAR: free fatty acid receptor; IBD: inflammatory bowel disease; CRC: colorectal cancer; AKT: protein kinase B; TLR4: Toll-like receptors 4; and HDACi: histone deacetylase inhibitor