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. 2023 Aug 18;21:212. doi: 10.1186/s12964-023-01219-9

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Intestinal microbiota metabolites acetate, propionate, and butyrate alleviates obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) increase the intestinal barrier function by elevating the expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and claudin-1 in IECs, preventing lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from entering the blood from the intestine, and further inhibiting adipose tissue inflammation. SCFAs promote the production of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in L cells; GLP-1 enters the liver and binds to the GLP-1 receptor on the surface of hepatocytes, promoting hepatic β-oxidation by activation of AMPK, thereby relieving fatty liver. GLP-1 activates PI3K/AKT signalling in pancreatic islets, inhibits apoptosis, and alleviates T2D. Other abbreviations are: GPCR: G protein-coupled receptors; FFAR: free fatty acid receptor; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-B; TG: triacylglycerol; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; p-ACC: phospho-acetyl-CoA carboxylase; p-AMPK: phospho-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; PYY: Peptide YY; and IECs: intestinal epithelial cells