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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Aug 18.
Published in final edited form as: Coord Chem Rev. 2022 Aug 23;472:214770. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214770

Table 3.

Summary of carbon-based scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Scaffold composition Cells (in vitro) Key findings Ref.
CNF compacts & PLGA casts of nanophase carbon fibers Human osteoblasts

  • Selectively enhanced osteoblast adhesion

 [158]
Electrospun ECNFs/HA MG-63

  • Enhanced mechanical strength by mineralization process (was not statistically significant (p < 0.1))

  • Biocompatible (24M-CNFs with negligible toxicity)

 [33]
Electro-conductive electrospun CNFs-medicated DCF MG-63

  • Increased cell growth (116.43 ± 4.76 %, at 100 μA)

  • Increased osteogenic activity

 [147]
ECNFs/SNPs MG-63

  • Improved cell attachment, viability, and proliferation

 [143]
Electro-conductive electrospun CNFs/Fe2O3 MG-63

  • Cytocompatible

  • Negligible toxicity (CNFs/Fe2O3 from PAN FeSO4–7H2O 15 %)

 [133]
Electro-conductive ECNFs/AuNP MG-63

  • No significant toxicity

  • No adverse effects on cell proliferation

 [159]
Electrospun β-TCP/ECNFs membranes PDLCs

  • Biocompatible

  • No adverse effect on cell affinity

  • Degradable

  • Improved cell growth

 [160]
Electrospun β-TCP@ECNFs membranes MG-63

  • Cell proliferation on the membranes

  • Biocompatible

 [161]
Thermal-based electrospun ECNF/BG MC3T3-E1

  • Enhanced biomineralization, cell proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation

 [162]
Sol-gel based Electrospun CNF/BG MC3T3-E1

  • Improved formation of apatite

  • Improved cell proliferation

 [152]
Electrospun CNF/BG Rat BM-MSCs

  • Enhanced biomineralization, cell adhesion and proliferation, and osteogenic induction

 [163]
BC nanofibers-derived 3-D CNF/HAp –

  • Enhanced mineralization (HAp nucleation and growth) by HNO3-surface treated CNFs

 [156]
Electrospun ECNF/HAp –

  • Increased mineralization activity (the presence of apatite-like materials)

 [164]
Sol-gel based ECNF-Si/Ca Normal human skin fibroblastsNHOst

  • Biocompatible

  • Low cytotoxicity

  • High ALP activity

 [165]
PP/CNF-HANR Saos-2

  • Improved mechanical strength (with Young’s modulus from 1,360 ± 20 to 2,517 ± 15 MPa and tensile strength from 30.0 ± 0.2 to 33.0 ± 0.3 MPa for PP/2%/CNF-20 % HANR)

  • Promoted osteoblastic adhesion and viability on PP

  • Biocompatible

 [166]

Abbreviations: PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid; HA/HAp: Hydroxyapatite; DCF: Direct current field; SNPs: Silica nanoparticles; Fe2O3: Ferrous sulfate; AuNP: Gold nanoparticle; β-TCP: β-tricalcium phosphate; BG: Bioglass; BC: Bacterial cellulose; ECNF-Si/Ca: Electrospun CNF-silica/calcium; PP/CNF–HANR: Polypropylene/carbon nanofiber-hydroxyapatite nanorod; PLA: poly(lactic acid); PCL: poly-ε-caprolactone; g-C3N4: Graphitic carbon nitride; MWCNTs: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes; f-MWCNT/Chitosan/B-GP: Functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes/chitosan/β-Glycerophosphate; MG-63: Human osteoblastic cell line; PDLCs: Human periodontal ligament cells; MC3T3-E1: Mouse osteoblastic cell line; BM-MSCs: Bone marrow-derived primary MSCs; NHOst: Normal human osteoblasts; Saos-2: Human osteoblast cell line; HNO3: Nitric acid; ALP: Alkaline phosphatase.