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. 2023 Aug 18;18:4727–4750. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S419369

Table 3.

An assortment of techniques involved in the characterisation nanoparticles with associated rationale(s)

Parameter Method Purpose References
Nanoparticle’s formation UV (Ultraviolet-visible) spectrophotometry To evaluate structure, size, stability of nanoparticles including their aggregation [48,54]
NPs morphology and size TEM (Transmission electron microscopy) For the determination of morphology (size and shape) as well structural allography of NPs [55,108]
High-resolution TEM (Transmission electron microscopy) For determining atom’s arrangement and local microstructures [51,52]
SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) Direct examination of morphology [53,56,106]
AFM (Atomic force microscopy) To determine size, surface texture or morphology [55,107]
DLS (Dynamic Light Scattering) To determine the distribution of particle size [56,107,108]
Charge on surface and surface related study Zeta potential To determine the charge on surface and stability of the NPs (colloidal) [57]
FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared-spectroscopy) Characterization of function groups present over the plane of particles [48,52,56]
XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) Used to determine reaction mechanism occurring on nanoparticle’s surface and characterization of involved bonding [52]
Thermal gravimetric analysis To confirm the binding efficiency of coating on the nanoparticle’s surface [52]
Crystallinity XRD (X-ray diffraction) Used for the determination of crystallinity of nanoparticles [54,107,108]
Magnetic properties VSM (Vibrating sample magnetometry) Used to evaluate magnetic nanoparticle’s magnetization [52]
Superconducting-quantum-interference device magnetometry Verify the magnetic nanoparticle’s magnetic properties [52]
Other techniques used in nanotechnology Chromatography Affinity (towards mobile phase) based separation of nanoparticles [108,116]
X-ray spectra (Energy dispersive) Used to determine nanoparticle’s elemental composition [48,50]
Field-flow-flotation Magnetic nanoparticles are separated on the basis of magnetic susceptibility [51]
Centrifugation techniques Density gradient separation of nanoparticles [117–119]
Laser-induced breakdown detection To examine colloidal concentration and size determination [120,121]
Mass spectrometry Depth profiling, characterization of size and charge state [122]