Nanoparticle’s formation |
UV (Ultraviolet-visible) spectrophotometry |
To evaluate structure, size, stability of nanoparticles including their aggregation |
[48,54] |
NPs morphology and size |
TEM (Transmission electron microscopy) |
For the determination of morphology (size and shape) as well structural allography of NPs |
[55,108] |
High-resolution TEM (Transmission electron microscopy) |
For determining atom’s arrangement and local microstructures |
[51,52] |
SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) |
Direct examination of morphology |
[53,56,106] |
AFM (Atomic force microscopy) |
To determine size, surface texture or morphology |
[55,107] |
DLS (Dynamic Light Scattering) |
To determine the distribution of particle size |
[56,107,108] |
Charge on surface and surface related study |
Zeta potential |
To determine the charge on surface and stability of the NPs (colloidal) |
[57] |
FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared-spectroscopy) |
Characterization of function groups present over the plane of particles |
[48,52,56] |
XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) |
Used to determine reaction mechanism occurring on nanoparticle’s surface and characterization of involved bonding |
[52] |
Thermal gravimetric analysis |
To confirm the binding efficiency of coating on the nanoparticle’s surface |
[52] |
Crystallinity |
XRD (X-ray diffraction) |
Used for the determination of crystallinity of nanoparticles |
[54,107,108] |
Magnetic properties |
VSM (Vibrating sample magnetometry) |
Used to evaluate magnetic nanoparticle’s magnetization |
[52] |
Superconducting-quantum-interference device magnetometry |
Verify the magnetic nanoparticle’s magnetic properties |
[52] |
Other techniques used in nanotechnology |
Chromatography |
Affinity (towards mobile phase) based separation of nanoparticles |
[108,116] |
X-ray spectra (Energy dispersive) |
Used to determine nanoparticle’s elemental composition |
[48,50] |
Field-flow-flotation |
Magnetic nanoparticles are separated on the basis of magnetic susceptibility |
[51] |
Centrifugation techniques |
Density gradient separation of nanoparticles |
[117–119] |
Laser-induced breakdown detection |
To examine colloidal concentration and size determination |
[120,121] |
Mass spectrometry |
Depth profiling, characterization of size and charge state |
[122] |