Table 2.

Nanomaterials acting on various cell organelles for enhanced cancer theranostics.

Materials	Targeted organelles	Mechanism	Detecting Methods	Cell	Ref.
GFNCs	Vascular endothelial gap junctions	VE-cadherin↓	Laser Doppler imaging and MRI	HepG-2	[36]
Ce6–C18-PEG/Cur	DNA damage	Destabilization	Confocal fluorescence micrographs of γ-H2AX-stained	4T1	[37]
SiNPs	ER	GRP78↑, CHOP↑, ERO1α↑	Western blot analysis	RAW 264.7	[38]
IONPs	ER	ER stress	RNA-seq and bioinformatics	RAW264.7	[39]
AgNPs	ER, mitochondrion	GRP78↑, p-PERK↑, p-eIF2α↑, CHOP↑, XBP1↑, p-IRE↑	Western blot analysis	SH-SY5Y	[40]
SiNPs	Lysosome	ROS/PARP/TRPM2 signaling-mediated lysosome impairment	LysoTracker Green DND-26 fluorescence	BEAS-2B	[41]
ZnONP	Lysosome	Lysosomal membrane destabilization	Acridine orange staining	Bronchial epithelial cells/THP1 cells	[42]
Ru-1@TPP-PEG-biotin SAN	Lysosome, ER	Lysosome degradation, GRP78↓, ER stress	Colocalization assay	MCF-7 and HepG2	[43]
SeNPs	Mitochondrion	Target the mitochondria via TLR4/TRAF3/MFN1 pathway	Mitochondrial membrane potential, ROS, ATP content,	OVCAR-3 and EAC	[44]
Dual targeted MSN	Mitochondrion	TPP binds to mitochondria membrane	JC-1 assay	LNCaP	[45]
MSNAs-TPP	Mitochondrion	Effect TLR4/TRAF3/MFN1	JC-1 assay	4T1	[46]
AuNCs/Cas9–gRNA	Nucleus	Release of Cas9–sgRNA plasmids into the cellular nucleus.	Cas9–sgRNA plasmid transport and release to achieve efficient genome editing	U2OS	[47]
Peroxisome-targeting peptide nanostructure	Peroxysome	SKL-COOH at the C-terminus of the PA, the nature of the secondary structure, and the morphology of the nanostructures	Confirmed by CLSM and 3D TEMT	HeLa	[48]
TiO2	VE-cadherin	VE-cadherin is phosphorylated at intracellular residues (Y658 and Y731), and the interaction between VE-cadherin and p120 as well as b-catenin is lost.	Western blot analysis.	B16F10	[49]