TABLE 4.

Effect of fruit and vegetable density on risk of preeclampsia and early-onset mediated through dietary vitamin C and carotenoids, Nulliparous Pregnancy Outcomes Study: monitoring mothers-to-be (2010‒2013)

	Preeclampsia	Early-onset preeclampsia	Late-onset preeclampsia
	Adjusted number of excess cases/100 pregnancies (95% CI)	Adjusted number of excess cases/100 pregnancies (95% CI)	Adjusted number of excess cases/100 pregnancies (95% CI)
≥2.5 cups of fruits and vegetables/1000 kcal mediated through dietary vitamin C	0 (–12, 12)	0 (–1.4, 1.4)	0 (–12, 12)
≥2.5 cups of fruits and vegetables/1000 kcal mediated through dietary carotenoids	0 (–13, 13)	0 (–1.8, 1.8)	0 (–12, 12)

These effects correspond to the natural indirect effect of fruit and vegetable density on preeclampsia occurring jointly through vitamin C and carotenoids. The total effects of fruit and vegetable density on the risk of preeclampsia are shown in Table 3.

Adjusted for participant’s age, education, race/ethnicity, marital status, prepregnancy smoking, medical insurance, gravidity, pre-existing diabetes, chronic hypertension, use of assisted reproductive technologies, periconceptional healthy eating index score, periconceptional physical activity, nausea and vomiting, health literacy, depressive symptoms, perceived stress, anxiety, neighborhood walkability, neighborhood deprivation, and percent of the neighborhood with income below the federal poverty line.