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. 2023 Aug 10;14:1224092. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1224092

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Effects of inulin on the mucosal immune system. The gut contains many immune cells. Inulin can regulate the differentiation and proliferation of these immune cells (e.g., Treg) to limit intestinal inflammation. Inulin promotes expression of TJ proteins and induces secretion of sIgA and Muc2 by plasma cells and goblet cells, which helps to maintain intestinal-barrier homeostasis. Inulin promotes IL-22 secretion by γδ T cells and ILC3s, which also helps to improve the intestinal barrier. However, inulin increases the circulating level of bile acids and triggers ILC2s to induce eosinophils, thereby exacerbating airway allergic responses. Inulin provides carbon sources for histone acetylation, regulates epigenetics, and inhibits tumor growth. In tumors, inulin can also promote the infiltration of CD8+ T cells and γδ T cells to enhance the anti-tumor effect. SCFAs, short-chain fatty acids; sIgA, secretory immunoglobulin A; FFARs, free fatty acid receptors; Muc2, mucin 2; TJ, tight junction; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; PYY, peptide YY, FXR, farnesoid X receptor; HDAC, histone deacetylase; ILC, innate lymphoid cell.