Table 1.
Summary of current evidence on the effects of hypothalamus-pituitary-testis axis hormones in central nervous system.
| HORMONE | TARGET NEUROTRANSMISSIONS AND CEREBRAL AREAS | EFFECT |
|---|---|---|
| Kisspeptin (44, 45, 47, 48, 72) | Hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, habenula, periaqueductal gray, ventral tegmental area (Animal and human studies) α2-adrenergic and serotoninergic neurotransmission (Animal studies) |
Attenuation of negative mood, enhancement of the activity of prefrontal cortex in response to negative stimuli and of limbic areas in response to sexual stimuli (Human studies) |
| GnRH (49, 50) | Antidepressant and anxiolytic effect (Animal studies) |
|
| Androgens (51–55, 63–65, 69, 70) | Hypothalamus, amygdala, caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens, preoptic area, lateral ventral septum, stria terminalis (Animal studies) Dopaminergic neurotransmission (Animal studies) |
Neuroprotective effect Synaptic density in the hippocampus (Animal studies) Grey matter volume in hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, mammillary bodies Activation of hippocampus and amygdala in response to fearful stimuli (Human studies) |
| Estrogens (56–60) | Hypothalamus, amygdala (ER α) Hippocampus, temporal cortex, claustrum, thalamus (ER β) (Human studies) Serotoninergic neurotransmission (Animal studies) |
Antidepressant and anxiolytic effect (Animal studies) |
GnRH, gonadotropin releasing hormone; ER, estrogen receptor.