Table A2.
The characteristics and CCAT scores of the 55 studies.
| No. | Authors (Year) Country | Title | Aim(s) | Participant Characteristics | Research Design |
Main Findings | CCAT Scores |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Algharaibeh [33] (2020) Jordan |
Should I ask for help? The role of motivation and help-seeking in students’ academic achievement: A path analysis model | To investigate the relationship between academic motivation, academic help-seeking, and academic achievement | 437 university students | Quantitative | Results illustrate the importance of academic motivation and help-seeking to provide a fuller understanding of students’ academic achievement | 36 |
| 2 | Almaghaslah [9] (2022) Saudi Arabia |
Academic help-seeking behaviors of undergraduate pharmacy students in Saudi Arabia: Usage and helpfulness of resources | To explore the reasons behind academic help-seeking, assessing the resources available to assist students, the frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and factors considered when choosing a certain resource | 103 students | Quantitative | Results indicated that useful resources like professors and textbooks were consulted less frequently, while frequently used resources like summaries were not particularly helpful, according to the results | 40 |
| 3 | Amador [90] (2014) United States |
Academic advising via Facebook: Examining student help-seeking | To focus on how six university students used and understood an electronic social network to seek help from an academic advisor | 6 selected participants, all between the ages of 19 and 22. | Qualitative | Results indicated that participants used a social network site to seek academic advising help and considered it beneficial for interacting with higher education personnel electronically | 35 |
| 4 | Amador [15] (2017) United States |
Academic help seeking: A framework for conceptualizing Facebook use for higher education support | To understand how higher education students, specifically preservice teachers, used Facebook to seek academic help | Six participants, four females, and two males ranged in age from 19 to 22, with half being first-generation college students | Qualitative | Results indicated that regular use of Facebook for academic support created a social network that fostered a sense of community and helped with academic tasks | 32 |
| 5 | Aristoteles [63] (2020) Republic of Indonesia |
The relationship of academic help-seeking with student achievement in nursing students in Stokes Muhammadiyah Palembang | To determine the relationship of academic help-seeking with student achievement in the Nursing Study Program Stokes Muhammadiyah Palembang | 116 respondents | Quantitative | Results indicated that there is a relationship between academic help-seeking and student achievement in Nursing Science Studies | 39 |
| 6 | Beisler [55] (2016) United States |
How do students get help with research assignments? Using drawings to Understand Students’ Help-Seeking Behavior | To explore undergraduate students’ help-seeking behavior about writing papers that require research | 220 undergraduate students | Quantitative | Results indicated that students usually receive help from peers and family members after drafting papers. Research-related tasks are the most challenging, but librarians are rarely sought for help | 37 |
| 7 | Bizuneh [91] (2022) Ethiopia |
Belief in counseling service effectiveness and academic self-concept as correlates of academic help-seeking behavior among college students | To examine the association between homework practices of college students, motivation, self-regulation of learning, and final course grades | 133 college students drawn from a small private college in urban New York | Quantitative | Results indicated that using homework logs and considering self-efficacy, motivation, and help-seeking strategies related to homework completion can promote self-directed learning | 30 |
| 8 | Bornschlegl [92] (2021) Australia |
Application of the theory of Planned Behavior to identify variables related to academic help seeking in higher education | To identify personality variables, background variables, and variables related to the Theory of Planned Behavior that can predict academic help-seeking in higher education to inform the design of engaging and accessible academic support | 430 students participated in the survey | Quantitative | The study found that only a small portion of the variance of academic help-seeking behavior could be explained, indicating the need for interventions to increase help-seeking | 39 |
| 9 | Bornschlegl [93] (2022) Australia |
Increasing accessibility to academic support in higher education for diverse student cohorts | To clarify why students (do not) engage in support and what could be changed to make services more accessible and engaging | 174 students | Quantitative | Results indicated that improve promotion and address the stigma around seeking help to normalize accessing academic support. Offer various modes of support to increase helpfulness and positive perception of services | 37 |
| 10 | Broadbent [84] (2021) Australia |
Use of live chat in higher education to support self-regulated help-seeking behaviors: a comparison of online and blended learner perspectives | To explore students’ perceptions of the use of live chat technology for online academic help-seeking within higher education, with a focus on comparing online and blended learners’ perspectives | 246 students who were studying psychology online (n = 91) or in blended learning (n = 155) environments | Quantitative | Results indicated that live chat technology was well-received by both groups, with online learners reporting greater satisfaction, access to staff, and feeling cared for by the teaching team | 38 |
| 11 | Brouwer [76] (2022) Netherlands |
The role of prosocial attitudes and academic achievement in peer networks in higher education | To investigate to what extent students’ prosocial attitudes and academic achievement facilitate the embeddedness in friendship and help-seeking networks while taking structural network characteristics into account | 95 first-year bachelor’s degree students | Quantitative | Results indicated that students’ prosocial attitudes and achievement influenced friendship formation, while only their achievement affected the formation of help-seeking relationships | 40 |
| 12 | Brown [94] (2020) UK |
Barriers to academic help-seeking: the relationship with gender-typed attitudes | To investigate the relationship between gender-typical attitudes and reluctance to seek academic help | 162 students at six UK universities | Quantitative | Results indicated that reluctance to seek help was predicted by higher scores on the masculine gender script subscale Mastery and Control of feelings for both male and female students | 38 |
| 13 | Chang [49] (2020) United States |
The complexity of cultural mismatch in higher education: norms affecting first-generation college students’ coping and help-seeking behaviors | To explore how cultural norms affect coping and help-seeking for academic, financial, and psychological problems among diverse first-generation college students | 11 individual interviews | Qualitative | Results indicated that first-generation college students face a mismatch between hard and soft independence, hindering their help-seeking behavior due to relational concerns | 40 |
| 14 | Cheng [95] (2013) Republic of China (Taiwan) |
University students’ online academic help seeking: The role of self-regulation and information commitments | To investigate if students’ online academic help-seeking (OAHS) can be facilitated by the aid of technology, and if improvement in OAHS involves personal variables such as self-regulated learning (SRL), and ‘information commitments’ (ICs), which are evaluative standards and strategies of online information | 328 university students in Taiwan. | Quantitative | The results verify that the students’ perceived SRL mediates the relationships between their perceptions of their ICs and OAHS to some degree | 37 |
| 15 | Dunn [74] (2014) United States |
Influence of academic self-regulation, critical thinking, and age on online graduate students’ academic help-seeking | To explore the effect of academic self-regulation, critical thinking, and age on online graduate students’ help-seeking | 165 graduate students | Quantitative | Results indicate that these variables did significantly influence help-seeking and that as self-regulation and critical thinking increased so did help-seeking. However, as age increased, help-seeking decreased | 33 |
| 16 | Ellis [96] (2021) United States |
A Theory of Reasoned Action Approach to examining academic help-seeking behaviors among adolescents in a college readiness program | To examine the extent to which GEAR UP participant attitudes, subjective norms, and intentions influence whether participants sought academic support from teachers, counselors, parents, or friends during an academic semester | 67 students | Quantitative | Results indicated that GEAR UP students are influenced by subjective norms when seeking academic support from friends, but less so when seeking support from school personnel or parents | 37 |
| 17 | Finney [51] (2018) United States |
Exploring profiles of academic help seeking: A mixture modeling approach | To explore the most common profiles of academic help-seeking in college student populations. Specifically, mixture modeling was used to identify and evaluate naturally occurring combinations, or patterns, of help-seeking attitudes and behaviors | 1950 incoming first-year college students | Quantitative | Results indicated that person-centered techniques revealed typical profiles of complex help-seeking processes among upper-class and first-year students, with one distinct profile. Implications are discussed | 35 |
| 18 | Giblin [97] (2021) United States |
Examining decision-making processes and heuristics in academic help-seeking and instructional environments | To explore how college students describe their decision-making process regarding the selection of help-seeking sources | 25 undergraduate students | Qualitative | Results indicated that the examination of decision-making heuristics may provide a new method to explore help-seeking behavior | 40 |
| 19 | Giblin [61] (2021) United States |
An exploration of factors influencing the decision-making process and selection of academic help sources | To identify factors that influence undergraduate students’ selection of a source of help | 99 math class college students | Quantitative | Findings support adding online sources to help-seeking models and highlight the importance of relationships. A new theory of source selection emerged, integrating help-seeking and information-searching behavior | 40 |
| 20 | Hao [82] (2016) United States |
What is the most important prediction of computer science students’ online help-seeking behaviors | To investigate the most important predictors of computer science students’ online help-seeking behaviors | Two groups of 203 undergraduate students | Quantitative | Results indicated that problem difficulty was the most important predictor for all three types of online help-seeking, followed by learning proficiency level, academic performance, and epistemological belief | 38 |
| 21 | Hayman [86] (2019) Canada |
Information behavior of undergraduate students using Facebook Confessions for educational purposes | To investigate the information behavior of undergraduate students seeking academic help via anonymous posts to a university Facebook Confessions page. While Confessions pages have gained popularity in post-secondary contexts, their use for educational purposes is largely unexplored | 2712 confessions were posted during one academic year. | Quantitative | Results indicated that Facebook Confessions is used for academic support through help-seeking, advice-giving, information-seeking, and moderating behaviors, based on qualitative and quantitative analysis | 39 |
| 22 | Holt [98] (2014) United States |
Attitudes about help-seeking mediate the relation between parent attachment and academic adjustment in first-year college students | To examine first-year college students’ attitudes about academic help-seeking as one possible mechanism | 93 first-year students | Quantitative | Results indicated that help-seeking attitudes mediated the relationship between parent attachment and academic adjustment, with females having more positive attitudes towards help-seeking, according to results | 33 |
| 23 | Holt [99] (2014) United States |
Help-seeking and social competence mediate the parental attachment–college student adjustment relation | To investigate whether attitudes about academic help-seeking, social competence, and self-compassion mediated the relations between parental attachment and college student adjustment | 204 first-year students | Quantitative | Results suggested that help-seeking attitudes and social competence could be fruitful targets of intervention for personnel working with college students who have strained parental relationships | 37 |
| 24 | Johnson [100] (2019) United States |
Examining the academic advising experiences of black males at an urban university: An exploratory case study | To understand the academic advising experiences of Black males at a large urban, predominantly White institution | 9 Black male college students | Qualitative | Results indicated that participants experienced process-related challenges and noted the impact of race/culture in academic advising but found positive outcomes in both formal and informal advising | 37 |
| 25 | Long [79] (2018) United States |
Self-compassion is associated with reduced self-presentation concerns and increased student communication behavior | To investigate whether students’ levels of self-compassion (the tendency to be mindful and kind to oneself and to recognize one’s common humanity) would be associated with a lower fear of evaluation and higher academic communication behavior | 691 undergraduates | Quantitative | Results indicated that students with higher self-compassion exhibited lower classroom participation avoidance and reported a higher tendency to ask questions, seek help, and speak with their instructors outside |
37 |
| 26 | Mahasneh [59] (2012) Jordan |
Academic help-seeking in online and face-to-face learning environments | To compare actual help-seeking frequencies across online and face-to-face learning environments. It also examines strategies enacted by nursing students when they faced academic difficulties, reasons for help-seeking avoidance, and the relationship between the frequency of asking questions and achievement | nursing students: a total of 56 online (n = 25) face-to-face (n = 31). |
Quantitative | Results indicated that the desire for autonomy was one of the main reasons for avoiding seeking help. It was also expected that students’ achievement would be significantly correlated with help-seeking frequency | 37 |
| 27 | Marrs (2012) [73] United States |
Gender, masculinity, femininity, and help-seeking in college | To explore the possible impact of gender-related attributes such as masculinity and femininity on academic help-seeking behaviors and academic performance | 567 college undergraduates | Quantitative | These results highlight the importance of exploring the potential influence of gender-related constructs on academic behavior and performance | 36 |
| 28 | Micari (2021) [32] United States |
Is it OK to ask? The impact of instructor openness to questions on student help-seeking and academic outcomes | To examine the relationships among instructor openness to student questions, student help-seeking behavior, and student final grade in lecture-style college/university courses | 268 university students | Quantitative | Results indicated that perceived instructor openness and help-seeking were positively related to grades. Help-seeking mediated the relationship between perceived instructor openness to questions and final grade | 35 |
| 29 | Opdecam [77] (2014) Belgium |
Preferences for team learning and lecture-based learning among first-year undergraduate accounting students | The first objective of this study is to investigate students’ preferences about their gender, ability, motivation, and learning strategy. The second objective is to explore whether a team-based approach is more effective than lecture-based learning when students participate in their preferred method |
291 students | Quasi-experiment | Results indicated that students with a preference for team learning had a lower ability level were more intrinsically motivated, had less control of their learning beliefs, were more help-seeking, and were more willing to share their knowledge with peers | 35 |
| 30 | Parnes [101] (2020) United States |
Closing the college achievement gap: Impacts and processes of a help-seeking intervention | To examine how a 4-session, group-based intervention (Connected Scholars) may improve underrepresented student outcomes by increasing help-seeking and network orientation | 396 public university students, 65% female, 90% racial/ethnic minority, and 42% first-generation college students (FGCS). | Quantitative | Results indicated that the Connected Scholars program had a positive impact on first-generation college students’ GPA and student–instructor relationships, with changes in help-seeking behavior and network orientation playing a role | 40 |
| 31 | Payakachat [50] (2013) United States |
Academic help-seeking behavior among student Pharmacists | To identify factors associated with academic help-seeking behavior among student pharmacists at a public university | Phrase 1 included 6 student pharmacists (1 male and 5 female) In phase 2, 304 out of 443 students (68.6% response rate) |
Mixed | Results indicated that academic help-seeking behavior was positively related to greater perceived academic competence and positive relationships among student pharmacists and faculty members | 32 |
| 32 | Payne (2021) [56] United States |
“Just because I am first gen doesn’t mean I’m not asking for help”: A thematic analysis of first-generation college students’ academic help-seeking behaviors | To investigate what first-generation students do when they need academic help and (b) how first-generation students navigate and negotiate their resources | 17 self-identified first-generation college students | Qualitative | Results indicated that first-generation students engage effectively in help-seeking, utilizing networks to assess and correct help quality, risks, and strategies | 40 |
| 33 | Qayyum [23] (2018) United States |
Student help-seeking attitudes and behaviors in a digital era | To examine college students’ attitudes and habits for seeking academic help. Students’ preferences for seeking academic help via digital and non-digital technologies are identified (N = 438) | 438 students | Quantitative | Results indicated that perceived threat, perception of instructors, and students’ preference to work independently are significant in predicting whether students sought help from instructors outside of class | 37 |
| 34 | Reeves [57] (2015) United States |
A comparison of technology ally mediated and face-to-face help-seeking sources | To examine whether students prefer and intend to utilize technologically mediated or face-to-face help-seeking sources | 226 Participants | Quantitative | Results indicated that higher-performing students prefer in-person help while lower-performing students prefer technological means, but all students intended to seek help | 36 |
| 35 | Sakiz [102] (2012) Turkey |
Perceived instructor effective support about academic emotions and motivation in college | To examine the associations among perceived instructor affective support, academic enjoyment, academic hopelessness, behavioral engagement, and academic help-seeking in college classrooms | 277 college students enrolled in a teacher training department of a major university in Turkey | Quantitative | The study emphasizes the need for supportive learning environments in K12 and college classrooms and discusses the implications for practice and future research, along with limitations | 37 |
| 36 | Santos [81] (2020) France |
Do learners decline to seek help to conform to rational principles | Explore why do learners fail to seek help, when doing so would be beneficial | 65 students | Experimental study | Results indicated that participants were more likely to seek help when help came at no financial cost but showed little sensitivity to other parameters | 36 |
| 37 | Schlusche [53] (2021) Germany |
Perceived social resources affect help-seeking and academic outcomes in the initial phase of undergraduate studies | To investigate the role of peer students as a social resource for academic help-seeking to overcome knowledge-related difficulties | First-semester students: total129 science (n 49) engineering (n 80) |
Quantitative | Results show that social variables such as social embeddedness and group awareness can influence academic help-seeking behavior and student success in different study programs | 38 |
| 38 | Schworm [58] (2012) Germany |
E-learning in universities: Supporting help-seeking pro-cusses by instructional prompts | To investigate the effect of giving prompts on the quantity and quality of academic help-seeking was experimentally investigated in a blended university learning course of educational science | 39 students | Quantitative | Results indicated that students with prompts about help-seeking relevance had better learning outcomes, higher participation, and initiated more discussions | 34 |
| 39 | Schworm [62] (2014) Germany |
Learning with video-based examples—are you sure you do not need help | To investigate help-seeking activities in a computer-based environment teaching argumentative skills through videos of argumentative dialogues of teachers who discussed controversial issues in the context of a workshop | 43 students | Quantitative | Results revealed the relevance of learners’ response certitude concerning their help use. Low response certitude about the correctness of a task solution led to higher help use which was positively related to the learning outcome | 31 |
| 40 | Shi [103] (2021) China |
Characterizing academic help-seeking moods for enrollment performance of institutional online student | To understand learners and associate their performances via exploiting academic help-seeking moods with online learning in institutional education settings | 2685 undergraduate courses | Quantitative | Results propose a novel research model and identify three different online help-seeking moods, which are namely goal-directed seeker, exploratory seeker, and avoidant seeker | 37 |
| 41 | Shively [104] (2013) United States |
Longitudinal changes in college math students’ implicit theories of intelligence | To examine changes over time in implicit theories of intelligence and their relationships to help-seeking and academic performance | 243 students who completed at least one questionnaire 98 students (44 male, 54 female) completed a questionnaire only at the beginning of the semester 84 students (44 male, 40 female) completed a questionnaire only at the end of the semester 61 students (20 male, 41 female) provided data at both waves |
Quantitative | Results indicated that students had more incremental views of general than math intelligence. Further, their views became less incremental over the semester; however, this decrease was greater for math than for general intelligence | 38 |
| 42 | Sun [64] (2018) Denmark |
The role of self-regulated learning in students’ success in flipped undergraduate math courses | To examine the relationships between academic achievement and three key self-regulatory constructs—prior domain knowledge, self-efficacy, and the use of learning strategies—in two flipped undergraduate math courses | 151 undergraduate students from 16 flipped sections of Calculus I and II courses in a large Midwestern university | Quantitative | Results indicated that students’ self-efficacy in learning math and the use of help-seeking strategies were all significantly positively related to academic achievement in both pre-and in-class learning environments | 39 |
| 43 | Tang [105] (2014) United States |
Distance students’ attitude toward library help-seeking | To explore library help-seeking attitudes of distance education students, with a particular focus on the stage of identifying helper(s) | 220 students enrolled in one or more distance education courses for the Fall term of 2012 | Quantitative | Results indicated that distance students who frequently visit the library and seek help have higher self-efficacy. Li guides are the most used source. Near-campus students prefer face-to-face consultation, while far-campus students tend to seek help from a distance librarian. Email is the most common way of distributing and receiving library information | 30 |
| 44 | Thomas [69] (2017) United States |
Where students start and what they do when they get stuck: A qualitative inquiry into academic information-seeking and help-seeking practices | To investigate two questions key to academic library resources and services: Which sources are students most likely to use to begin their academic work? Whom do students tend to consult for research assistance? | 15 undergraduate and graduate students | Qualitative | Results indicated that students tend to seek help from faculty and peers and use library databases for research but are unaware of librarians’ roles. Small study groups and alternate research sites also emerged as themes | 34 |
| 45 | Thomas [72] (2019) United States |
Predicting Academic Help-Seeking Intentions Using the Reasoned Action Model | To use the Reasoned Action Model to investigate the determinants of students’ intentions to utilize university-based sources of academic support | Participants (N = 125) in Study 1 Participants (N = 176) in Study 2 |
Qualitative | Results indicated that normative pressure was the strongest predictor of intentions to use university-based academic support, followed by attitudes. These results suggest that interventions targeting normative and behavioral beliefs may be effective in increasing academic help-seeking | 38 |
| 46 | Tsai [85] (2017) Republic of China (Taiwan) |
How to solve students’ problems in a flipped classroom: a quasi-experimental approach | To improve students’ learning, the authors designed and provided flipped learning (FL) and treatment of online academic help-seeking (OAHS) in a computing course to help students develop computing skills for using Microsoft Word and PowerPoint | 126 undergraduates | Quantitative | Results indicated that OAHS treatment improved computing skills for Word and PowerPoint, while FL treatment did not show significant improvement | 36 |
| 47 | Umarani [30] (2020) India |
Do the Students have the attitude to seek academic help?—A study among undergraduate students | To assess the attitude on academic help-seeking behavior among nursing students | Among 96 first-year B.Sc. Nursing students | Quantitative | Results indicated that students have a positive attitude towards academic help-seeking, and educators should address the factors that hinder it. Help-seeking is a useful strategy that benefits academic success | 32 |
| 48 | Valenzuela [106] (2021) Chile |
Variables Predicting Participation in institutional academic support services (IAS) | To identify the variables that best predict voluntary participation in these services | 803 male and female university students from four Chilean universities participated in this study | Quantitative | Results indicated that predictors of participation in institutional academic support services include awareness of need, knowledge of procedures, experience seeking help, and cost associated with loss of alternatives | 38 |
| 49 | Vilkova [88] (2021) Russia |
Deconstructing self-regulated learning in MOOCs: In search of help-seeking mechanisms | To fill the gap in understanding the structure of SRL skills utilizing the Online Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire (OSLQ) | 913 Russian MOOC learners | Quantitative | Results indicated that the dimension ‘help-seeking’ is not effective in the MOOC environment | 37 |
| 50 | Williams-Dobosz [107] (2021) United States |
Ask for help: Online help-seeking and help-giving as indicators of cognitive and social presence for students underrepresented in chemistry | To analyze help-seeking behaviors and responses to requests for help in an online college-level chemistry course’s discussion forum | 94 students enrolled in and completed an online, asynchronous, early curriculum, college-level chemistry course | Quantitative | Results indicated that requests for help were responded to equally, regardless of how explicitly students appealed for help | 36 |
| 51 | Wirtz [71] (2018) United States |
Resource usage and usefulness: academic help- seeking behaviors of undergraduate engineering students | To explore the Help-seeking behaviors of students enrolled in a Mechanical Engineering program at a large research-intensive university | 355 survey respondents 14 individual conversations and 23 group conversations consisting of 92 participants |
Mixed | Results indicated that the more convenient a resource is perceived to be, the more likely a student is to use that resource | 35 |
| 52 | Won [78] (2021) United States |
Brief research report: Sense of Belonging and academic help-seeking Self-regulated learning | To investigate whether college students’ sense of belonging could be used to understand their academic help-seeking | 307 College students | Quantitative | Results indicated that a sense of belonging predicted adaptive help-seeking, along with self-efficacy for self-regulated learning, while utility value predicted expedient help-seeking. Results can inform interventions to promote effective help-seeking | 37 |
| 53 | Xie [108] (2019) China |
Effects of undergraduates’ academic self-efficacy on their academic help-seeking behaviors: The mediating effect of professional commitment and the moderating effect of gender | To examine whether gender plays a moderating role in the association between academic self-efficacy and academic help-seeking | 559 university students | Quantitative | Findings show that greater professional commitment is associated with more instrumental academic help-seeking and less avoidance of help-seeking | 34 |
| 54 | Zander [52] (2021) Germany |
Perceived peer exclusion as a predictor of students’ help-seeking strategies in higher education | To investigate the relationship between perceived peer exclusion and help-seeking strategies | 447 undergraduate students in 25 seminars and tutorials | Quantitative | Results indicated that help-seeking in computer science signals competence-related inferiority, which indicates an “image problem.” Enhancing adaptive help exchange cultures is necessary to address this issue | 37 |
| 55 | Zheng [65] (2020) China |
Self-regulated learning: the effect on medical student learning outcomes in a flipped classroom environment | To explore which self-regulated learning skills affect student learning performance in the first 2 years of medical school at a university in the midwestern United States | 146 first- and second-year medical students | Quantitative | Results indicated that the use of peer learning and help-seeking positively affected the performance of first- and second-year students, respectively, whereas the use of rehearsal harmed student learning outcomes | 36 |