Table 1.

Characteristics of PanNETs.

PanNET Type	Associated Biomarkers/Hormones	Associated Genetic Syndromes	Clinical Manifestations	Diagnosis	Imaging
Insulinoma	Insulin Pro-insulin C-Peptide Chromogranin A	MEN1	Hypoglycemia	72 h fasting test Negative serum/urine toxicology for insulin secretagogues	Ultrasound/CT/MRI/EUS Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (octreotide scan) Arteriography/intraarterial stimulation with venous sampling 18-F-DOPA PET 68Ga-DOTATATE PET/CT
Gastrinoma	Gastrin Chromogranin A	MEN1	Zollinger–Ellison syndrome	Gastrin levels Stomach pH Secretin test	EUS Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (octreotide scan) 68Ga-DOTATATE PET/CT
Glucagonoma	Glucagon Chromogranin A Neuron-specific enolase	MEN1	Migratory necrolytic erythema	Glucagon levels	Ultrasound/CT Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (octreotide scan)
VIPoma	Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide Gastrin Insulin	MEN1	Secretory diarrhea	VIP levels Stool osmolality 68Ga-DOTATATE PET/CT	68Ga-DOTATATE PET/CT
Somatostatinoma	Somatostatin	MEN1	Somatostatinoma syndrome	EUS-FNA	Ultrasound/CT/MRI
Nonfunctional PanNETs	Chromogranin A Polypeptide P	VHL			EUS