Table 1.

Examples of potential applications of digital twins within the IOM framework of healthcare quality [43] in healthcare systems.

Domain	Potential Applications
Safety	Digital twins allow the testing of various interventions on identical digital models of patients; hence, any risk can be predicted or detected before real-world interventions with patients. This capability offers safer procedures and interventions and minimizes potential harm.
Effectiveness	Digital twins allow an examination of the latest treatments, medical devices, and technologies to provide evidence regarding the effectiveness of a treatment choice and optimize disease management among patients. Decision trees and algorithms embedded in digital twins and advanced deep learning can help provide appropriate individualized choices and personalized care.
Patient-centered care	Digital twins are aligned with the concept of recognizing the uniqueness of each patient and providing personalized care. Individual aspects are taken into consideration to ensure personalized holistic decision making with the aid of digital twins. Patients’ own data are used for their own care, reflecting active patient involvement in treatment plans based on individual needs.
Timeliness	Digital twins, particularly intelligent digital twins, can provide timely actionable information for decision making due to their continuous monitoring capability and provision of real-time feedback or even early timing feedback. It is expected that intelligent digital twins can facilitate treatment plans and preventative care.
Equity	Digital twins are expected to influence equity in healthcare. Both their risks and benefits have been discussed in relation to health equity. Digital twins can close or widen the gap of equitable acts during the delivery of care. This domain is currently unknown.
Efficiency	Digital twins are speculated to reduce costs (a proper assessment and cost analysis are required) and enhance efficiency within healthcare systems in terms of workflow, waste, and long-term costs and consequences. A more efficient healthcare system can save resources by integrating digital twins and personalized care, thus reducing unsafe and/or inefficient care, complications, and readmissions. This domain is a dynamic feature and requires continuous review and monitoring to adjust to the needs for optimal efficiency.