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. 2023 Jul 27;16(8):1065. doi: 10.3390/ph16081065

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Linagliptin enhances acetylcholine and GABA and lowers acetylcholine esterase and glutamate in the hippocampi of cadmium-intoxicated rats. The level of acetylcholine neurotransmitter was increased (A) and acetylcholine esterase activity was lowered (B) by linagliptin in the hippocampi of cadmium-intoxicated rats. Moreover, the level of GABA was increased (C) while glutamate protein expression was lowered (D) by linagliptin. N = 6 in each group (mean ± standard error of the mean). A p-value of less than 0.05 was significant. *** p < 0.001, or **** p < 0.0001, compared to control; ^# p < 0.05, ^## p < 0.01, or ^### p < 0.001, compared to cadmium (Tukey’s test for multi-comparisons and one-way ANOVA). Cd, cadmium chloride; LIN, linagliptin.