Fig 1. Schematic of the spQSP model for HCC immunotherapy integrating a systemic QSP model with a detailed ABM of the tumor and its microenvironment.

Left: The QSP model simulates the systemic processes of T cell priming, immune cell trafficking, immune-cancer interactions, antigen collection and presentation, and pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) of therapeutics. Right: Additional simulation of molecular components enabled by the ABM module of the tumor compartment (shown in red dashed box), which further models immune cell recruitment, cancer cell development and proliferation, immune cancer interactions, immune-checkpoint inhibition, and cytokine releasing and diffusion spatially.