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. 2023 Aug 25;23:407. doi: 10.1186/s12870-023-04403-8

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — A comparison of the effects of drought stress in presence or absence of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. A. Major processes adopted by plants in response to drought stress. The impacts of drought stress on plant physiological and biological processes include accumulation of ABA and stomatal closure to reduce water loss, increased phytohormone imbalance, ROS accumulation, decreased PSII functional antenna cross-section, and reduced root system development, which negatively affect water content and osmolytes production. Drought stress also increases ethylene production which increases leaf abscission and senescence. B. Role of PGPR in alleviating drought stress impact in host plant. PGPR positively affect vegetative parameters and physio-biochemical traits of inoculated plants via various processes including amelioration of root system development, which improve water and nutrients uptake, enhanced production of osmolytes that play a role in osmotic adjustment and enable the maintenance of cell turgor for plant survival. PGPR enhance the accumulation of antioxidants enzymes to decrease ROS content in plants. PGPR ameliorate photosynthetic activity, pigments production and phytohormones homeostasis. PGPR induce expression of stress-related genes and accumulation of proteins involved in metabolite synthesis to help plants cope with drought stress. PGPR: Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria; ABA: Abscisic acid; APX: ascorbate peroxidase; CAT: catalase; EPS: Exo-polysaccharides: ET: ethylene; GPX: glutathione peroxidase; POD: peroxidase; SOD: superoxide dismutase; ROS: Reactive oxygen species