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. 2023 Aug 29;9:320. doi: 10.1038/s41420-023-01613-9

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Free radical-mediated oxidation lipid peroxidation includes three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. In the initiation phase, ROS/ RNS free radicals react with PUFAs and abstract an allylic hydrogen thus forming lipid radicals. In the propagation phase, the lipid radicals react with oxygen and form lipid peroxyl radicals, and then lipid peroxyl radicals react with PUFAs to form new radicals and lipid hydroperoxides. In the termination phase, the propagation can be blocked by antioxidants or lipid radicals by donating a hydrogen atom to lipid peroxyl radicals resulting in the formation of nonradical products. Due to the instability of lipid hydroperoxides, they may degrade into secondary products. 4-HNE and MDA are the main products among the many reactive aldehydes.