Abstract
Introduction:
Agad Tantra being the unique branch that deals with toxicology and its management enlists several antitoxic drugs used for various poisonings. Ancient texts comprise the list of a wide range of traditional medicines, but they are not explored due to lack of incomprehension.
Aims:
The review has been written with the aim to dig out the hidden knowledge of Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) mentioned in Kaiydeva Nighantu.
Materials and methods:
This Nighantu was written in the 15th century A. D. by Kaiydeva with the name “Pathya-Apathya-Vibodhaka” it comprising of total 514 Dravyas out of which 175 drugs possess Vishagna (anti-poisonous) property.
Results:
These Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) have been distributed based on various Vargas (classes) which is described as 121 belonging to Ausghada Varga (drug class) as single drugs and four as groups, total of 16 from Dhatu Varga (metal class) as single drugs and one as compound or as a group, 9 from Dhanya Varga (cereal class) as a single drug, 15 in Dravya Varga as single drugs, and 5 as compound or as a group. Two each in Kritana Varga and Vihara Varga and one in Mansa Varga as compound or as a group. Out of all the 175 Vishagna Dravayas (alexeterics), 18 Dravyas (substances) are specific indications in combating particular types of envenomation or poisoning conditions.
Conclusion:
All the abovementioned drugs are screened for the purpose of revalidation to bring out their therapeutic utility.
Keywords: Kaiydeva Nighantu, Vargas, Vishaghna Dravya
Introduction
Herbal medicines are a regional tradition with worldwide importance.[1] India is a mega-diverse country that is home to roughly 10% of all species in the world.[2] It has fostered a rich cultural heritage over the course of several thousands of years. Agad Tantra has been described among one of the eight clinical branches (Ashtanga) mentioned in the Ayurvedic text which deals with the study of poisons, their clinical features, diagnosis of cumulative toxicity, and treatment. Various ancient text comprises several new herbs which have not been recognized and are of great importance. The word Nighantu has been derived from the word Nighudh Artha (hidden meaning). In the classical Ayurvedic literature, various Nighantu has been written for understanding the new herbs and their properties, part used therapeutic actions. Kaiydeva Nighantu is believed to be composed in the 15th century AD. it comprises total of nine Vargas (classes) out of which only eighth are available and in total 514 Dravyas (substances).[3] The review has been written from Kaiydeva Nighantu which is also called as Patya-Apathya-Vibodhaka though it is famous with the name of its writer. It has been written with the intention to maintain an individual’s health and cure disease by emphasizing on proper Pathya Apatya. The 8 Vargas (classes) mentioned in the Nighantu has been serialized as Aushadhi Varga (medicinal herbs), Dhatu Varga (minerals class), Dhanya Varga (cotyledons and legumes), Drava Varga (liquids class), Kritana Varga (rice preparations), Mamsa Varga (flesh foods), Vihara Varga (routine activities), Mishraka Varga (miscellaneous). A, Out of these eight Vargas, one and two are related to Aushada (drugs), three–six are related to Anna (food), seven are related to Vihara (activities), and eight consists of Mishra part which comprises of topics other than mentioned previously.[4] It is an attempt for collective classification of Vishaghna Dravyas (anti-poisonous substance) mentioned in the Nighantu based on their herbal, mineral, and animal origins belonging to different Vargas (chapter-wise classification).
Materials and methods
The book reviewed here has been edited and translated by Prof. Priyavrata Sharma and Dr. Guru Prasad Sharma, published by Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, it is the reprint edition of 2009.[4] The writer has contributed to numerous Aushadha Dravyas (drug class) of herbal, animal, and mineral origin. Each Shloka has been screened and emphasis has been made on Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) for the scope of research and therapeutic utility. Screened drugs have been depicted in the tables with their referred Shlokas (verse) and the page number mentioned according to the book reviewed here.
Results
Tables and graphs have been depicted based on the Vargas (chapters wise) as single drugs and few as a group of herbs [Table 1 and Graph 1] consists of all the Vishaghna Dravyas mentioned in Aushadha Varga [Table 2 and Graph 2] shows Vishaghna Dravyas of Dhatu Varga [Table 3 and Graph 3] comprises Vishaghna Dravyas of Dhanya Varga [Table 4 and Graph 4], and comprises Vishaghna Dravyas of Dhatu Varga. Other than the single drugs, a few other groups of herbs as compound drugs having Vishaghna properties are mentioned in Table 5 and Graph 5.
Table 1.
Vishaghana Dravyas (alexeterics) of Aushadhi Varga (medicinal herbs)
| Drug name | Botanical source | Action | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shaalparni | D. gangeticum. DC. | Vishapaha | P.- 12, Ver.- 46 |
| Yashtimadhu | G. glabra Linn. | Vishapaha | P.- 22, Ver.- 103 |
| Nirgundi | V. negundo Linn. | Vishapaha, Vishanashaka | P.- 27, Ver.- 128 |
| Haritaki | T. chebula Retz. | Garaha | P.- 45, Ver.- 226 |
| Bhumyamlaki | P. niruri Linn. | Vishapha | P.- 49, Ver.- 250 |
| Pracheenamlakam | F. cataphracta Roxb. | Garapaha | P.- 50, Ver.- 252 |
| Nimbuka | C. medica var. acida | Vishadhavanshi | P.- 62, Ver.- 328 |
| Kareera | C. aphylla Roth. | Garaha | P.- 70, Ver.- 378 |
| Kapitha | F. elephantum Correa | Vishahanti | P.- 78, Ver.- 418 |
| Kakodumbara | F. hispida Linn. | Vishajita | P.- 82, Ver.- 451 |
| Peelu | S. persica Linn. | Garaha | P.- 83, Ver.- 454 |
| Neepa | A. cadamba Mig. | Garaha | P.- 89, Ver.- 486 |
| Katutumbi | L. vulgaris Ser. | Vishapaha | P.- 98, Ver.- 543 |
| Koshataki | L. acutangula Roxb. | Garajayeta | P.- 103, Ver.- 57 |
| vandhyakarkotaki | M. dioica Roxb. | Vishanuta | P.- 109, Ver.- 597 |
| Vishamushti | A. conyzoides Linn. | Mooshika Vishama | P.- 110, Ver.- 601 |
| Shleshmataka | C. myxa Roxb. | Vishanuta | P.- 112, Ver.- 615 |
| Vyaghrataka | C. zeylanica Linn. | Vishahara | P.- 112, Ver.- 615 |
| Kalshaka | C. capsularis Linn. | Garaha | P.- 115, Ver.- 630 |
| Tanduliya | A. spinosus Linn. | Vishaghana | P.- 115, Ver.- 632 |
| Shwetamarsa | A. blitum Var. oleracea Duthie | Vishahanti | P.- 116, Ver.- 634 |
| Paalankya | S. oleracea Linn. | Vishapaha | P.- 119, Ver.- 646 |
| Loni | P. quadrifida Linn. | Vishanashaka | P.- 120, Ver.- 649 |
| Phanji | R. ornate Chois | Vishapaha | P.- 121, Ver.- 180 |
| Dry Mulaka | R. sativus Linn. | Vishajita | P.- 124, Ver.- 673 |
| Patha | C. pareira Linn. | Vishahara | P.- 125, Ver.- 679 |
| Kasamarda | C. occidentalis Linn. | Vishapaha | P.- 126, Ver.- 683 |
| Chakramarda | C. tora Linn. | Vishajita | P.- 130, Ver.- 703 |
| Kakajhangha | P. bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees | Vishahanti | P.- 132, Ver.- 713 |
| Bramhi | C. asiatica Urban. | Vishanuta | P.- 133, Ver.- 723 |
| Meshashringi | G. sylvestre R. Br. | Vishahanti | P.- 136, Ver.- 738 |
| Shigru | M. pterygosperma Gaertn | Vishahanti | P.- 138, Ver.- 745 |
| Hanspadi | A. lunulatum Burm. | Vishahanti | P.- 141, Ver.- 767 |
| Nagini | C. oblongifolius Roxb. | Vishahanti | P.- 142, Ver.- 770 |
| Nakuli | R. serpentina Benth. ex kurz | Sarpa, Luta, Vrishchika, Aakhu Visha | P.- 143, Ver.- 777 |
| Nagdamni | A. indica Linn. | Sarpa Luta Visha | P.- 144, Ver.- 789 |
| Murva | M. tenacissima W. and A. | Vishaghana | P.- 145, Ver.- 787 |
| Neelini | I. tinctoria Linn. | Vishapaha | P.- 146, Ver.- 792 |
| Gunja | A. precatorius Linn. | Vishahanti | P.- 148, Ver.- 796 |
| Devadaali | L. echinata Roxb. | Vishapaha AkhuVisha | P.- 148, Ver.- 798 |
| Shaal | S. robusta Gaertu. f. | Vishapaha | P.- 151, Ver.- 809 |
| Bhurja | B. utilis D. Don. | Vishahara Vishanuta | P.- 153, Ver.- 818 |
| Ashvakarna | D. alatus Roxb. | Vishahanti | P.- 157, Ver.- 845 |
| Inguda | B. roxburghii Planch. | Vishahanti | P.- 161, Ver.- 866 |
| Kinihi | A. procera Roxb. Benth. | Vishahanti | P.- 161, Ver.- 870 |
| Katambhar | M. koenigii Linn. | Vishahanti | P.- 162, Ver.- 872 |
| Nimba | A. indica A. Juss. | Vishanuta | P.- 163, Ver.- 883 |
| Rohitaka | T. undulata Seena. | Vishapaha | P.- 169, Ver.- 916 |
| Saptala | E. dracunculoides Lam. | Vishahara | P.- 170, Ver.- 924 |
| Snuhi | E. neriifolia Linn. | Visha and Dushi Vishahara | P.- 170, Ver.- 920 |
| Ankota | A. salvifolium Linn. f. Wang. | Vishahanti, Akhu Visha | P.- 171, Ver.- 927 |
| Kumpillaka | M. philippinensis Muell. Ars. | Vishaha | P.- 175, Ver.- 950 |
| Kadamba | A. cadamba Miq. | Vishahanti | P.- 176, Ver.- 957 |
| Karanja | P. pinnata Linn. Merr. | Vishajita | P.- 179, Ver.- 968 |
| Shirisha | A. lebbeck Benth. | Vishahanti | P.- 180, Ver.- 975 |
| Sarivakrishna | C. buchanani Roem and Schult | Vishapaha | P.- 184, Ver.- 995 |
| Aavartaki | C. auriculata Linn. | Vishapaha, Vishahara | P.- 184, Ver.- 998,1000 |
| Markandika | C. angustifolia Linn. | Vishghana | P.- 185, Ver.- 46 Page number-185 Verse-1002 |
| Danti | B. montanum Muell-Arg. | Garapaha | Page number-184 Verse-1014 |
| Swarnakshiri | E. thomsoniana Boiss. | Vishjita | Page number-189 Verse-1021 |
| Indravaruni | C. colocynthis Schard. | Vishahara | Page number-190 Verse-1028 |
| Rasna | P. lanceolata olive. and Hiern. | Vishahanti | Page number-193 Verse-1043 |
| Ashvagandha | W. somnifera Dunal | Vishahanti | Page number-193 Verse-1046 |
| Sahachara | B. cristata Linn. | Vishajita | Page number-194 Verse-1050 |
| Hapusha | J. communis Linn. | Vishdushani | Page number-197 Verse-1069 |
| Dhataki | W. fruticosa Kurz. | Vishaghana | Page number-198 Verse-1073 |
| Apraajita | C. ternatea Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-199 Verse-1080 |
| Babula | A. arabica Willd. | Vishapaha | Page number-201 Verse-1089 |
| Kokilaksha | H. spinosa T. And. | Vishapaha | Page number-201 Verse-1092 |
| Shankhadhara | E. fluctuans Lour. | Vishahanti | Page number-205 Verse-1112 |
| Haridra | C. longa Linn. | Vishajita | Page number-206 Verse-1115 |
| AtiVisha | A. heterophyllum Wall. | Vishajita | Page number-207 Verse-1120 |
| Lodhra | S. racemosa Roxb. | Vishahanti | Page number-208 Verse-1127 |
| Kataka | S. potatorum Linn. | Vishahanti, Vishanuta | Page number-211 Verse-1141, 1055 |
| Chavya | P. chaba Hunter. | Garapaha | Page number-217 Verse-1174 |
| Chandana | S. album Linn. | Vishanuta | Page number-238 Verse-1267 |
| Tagara | V. wallichii DC. | Vishapaha | Page number-236 Verse-1276 |
| Karpura | C. camphora Nees and Eberm. | Vishapha | Page number-238 Verse-1287 |
| Kasturi | A. moschatus Medik. | Vishaha | Page number-239 Verse-1292 |
| Marjaari | Civet | Vishanuta | Page number-240 Verse-1300 |
| Kushtha | S. lappa C.B. Clarke | Vishajita | Page number-244 Verse-1319 |
| Elavaluka | P. cerasus Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-245 Verse-1325 |
| Jaavitari | M. fragrans Houtt. | Vishapaha | Page number-246 Verse-1330 |
| Lavanga | S. aromaticum Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-247 Verse-1334 |
| Nagakesara | M. ferrea Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-249 Verse-1347 |
| Renuka | V. negundo Linn. | Vishanuta | Page number-250 Verse-1351 |
| Priyangu | C. macrophylla vahl. | Vishaghana | Page number-251 Verse-1355 |
| Paripelava | O. indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz | Vishapranuta | Page number-252 Verse-1361 |
| Jatamansi | N. jatamansi DC. | Vishnuta | Page number-253 Verse-1364 |
| Usheera | V. zizanioides Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-254 Verse-1370 |
| Granthiparni | L. nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. | Vishanashaka | Page number-258 Verse-1395 |
| Sprikka | D. zalil Aitch. and Hemsl. | Vishanashaka | Page number-259 Verse-1397 |
| Padmaka | P. puddum Roxb. Ex Wall. | Vishapaha | Page number-260 Verse-1402 |
| Manjishtha | R. cordifolia Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-264 Verse-1426 |
| Parpati | P. cablin | Vishahanti | Page number-265 Verse-1429 |
| Laksha | L. lacca Kerr. | Vishanashaka | Page number-266 Verse-1435 |
| Sthalakamala | H. mutabilis Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-266 Verse-1437 |
| Kamalakesara | N. nucifera Gaertn. | Vishajita | Page number-270 Verse-1458 |
| Mallika | J. sambac Ait | Vishahara | Page number-272 Verse-1472 |
| Malati | J. grandiflorum Linn. | Vishajita | Page number-273 Verse-1474 |
| Shankhini | A. paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | Vishapaha | Page number-622 Verse-1491 |
| Shankhapushpi | C. pluricaulis Chois. | Vishahara | Page number-622 Verse-1496 |
| Champaka | M. champaca Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-623 Verse-1500 |
| Ashoka | S. indica Linn. | Vishajita | Page number-623 Verse-1503 |
| Bakula | M. elengi Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-626 Verse-1514 |
| Buka | O. fragrans Lour. | Vishapaha | Page number-626 Verse-1516 |
| Kunda | J. pubescence Wild. | Vishapaha | Page number-627 Verse-1519 |
| Muchukunda | P. acerifolium Wild. | Vishanashaka | Page number-627 Verse-1520 |
| Japa | H. rosa-sinensis Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-627 Verse-1522 |
| Sindoori | B. orellana Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-628 Verse-1524 |
| Arka | C. procera R.Br. | Vishahara | Page number-630 Verse-1534 |
| Alarka | C. gigantea (Linn.) R.Br. ex Ait. | Vishahara | Page number-630 Verse-1534 |
| Peetakarveera | C. thevetia L. | Vishapaha | Page number-631 Verse-1544 |
| Dhatura | D. stramonium Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-632 Verse-1547 |
| Tulsi | O. sanctum Linn. | Vishajita | Page number-633 Verse-1555 |
| Phanijjaka | O. majorana L. | Vishanuta | Page number-634 Verse-1559 |
| Arjaka | O. pallidus Royle. | Viushaghna | Page number-634 Verse-1562 |
| Sumukha | O. basilicum pilosum | Vishahara | Page number-635 Verse-1564 |
| Damanaka | A. vulgaris Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-636 Verse-1470 |
| Marubaka | O. majorana Linn. | Vishahanti | Page number-636 Verse-1472 |
| Gajakarni | L. macrophylla Horn. | Vishajita | Page number-647 Verse-1634 |
D. gangeticum: Desmodium gangeticum, G. glabra: Glycyrrhiza glabra, T. chebula: Terminalia chebula, P. niruri: Phyllanthus niruri, F. cataphracta: Flacourtia cataphracta, C. medica: Citrus medica, C. aphylla: Capparis aphylla, F. elephantum: Feronia elephantum, F. hispida: Ficus hispida, S. persica: Salvadora persica, L. vulgaris: Langenaria vulgaris, L. acutangula: Luffa acutangula, M. dioica: Momordica dioica, A. conyzoides: Ageratum conyzoides, C. myxa: Cordia myxa, C. zeylanica: Capparis zeylanica, C. capsularis: Corchorus capsularis, A. spinosus: Amaranthus spinosus, A. blitum: Amaranthus blitum, S. oleracea: Spinacia oleracea, P. quadrifida: Portulaca quadrifida, R. ornate: Rivea ornate, R. sativus: Raphanus sativus, C. pareira: Cissampelos pareira, C. occidentalis: Cassia occidentalis, C. tora: Cassia tora, P. bicalyculata.: Peristrophe bicalyculata, C. asiatica: Centella asiatica, G. sylvestre: Gymnema sylvestre, M. pterygosperma: Moringa pterygosperma, A. lunulatum: Adiantum lunulatum, C. oblongifolius: Croton oblongifolius, R. serpentina: Rauvolfia serpentina, A. indica: Aristolochia indica, M. tenacissima: Marsdenia tenacissima, I. tinctoria: Indihofera tinctoria, A. precatorius: Abrus precatorius, L. echinata: Luffa echinata, S. robusta: Shorea robusta, B. utilis: Betula utilis, D. alatus: Dipterocarpus alatus, B. roxburghii: Balanites roxburghii, A. procera: Albizzia procera, M. koenigii: Murraya koenigii, A. indica: Azadirachta indica, T. undulata: Tecomella undulata, E. dracunculoides: Euphorbia dracunculoides, E. neriifolia: Euphorbia neriifolia, A. salvifolium: Alangium salvifolium, M. philippinensis: Mallotus philippinensis, A. cadamba: Anthocephalus cadamba, P. pinnata: Pongamia pinnata, A. lebbeck: Albizia lebbeck, C. buchanani: Cryptolepis buchanani, C. auriculata: Cassia auriculata, C. angustifolia: Cassia angustifolia, B. montanum: Baliospermum montanum, E. thomsoniana: Euphorbia thomsoniana, C. colocynthis: Citrullus colocynthis, P. lanceolata: Pluchea lanceolata, W. somnifera: Withania somnifera, B. cristata: Barleria cristata, J. communis: Juniperus communis, W. fruticosa: Woodfordia fruticosa, C. ternatea: Clitoria ternatea, A. arabica: Acacia arabica, H. spinosa: Hygrophila spinosa, E. fluctuans: Enhydra fluctuans, C. longa: Curcuma longa, A. heterophyllum: Aconitum heterophyllum, S. racemosa: Symplocos racemosa, S. potatorum: Strychnos potatorum, P. chaba: Piper chaba, S. album: Santalum album, V. wallichii: Valeriana wallichii, C. camphora: Cinnamomum camphora, A. moschatus: Abelmoschus moschatus, S. lappa: Saussurea lappa, P. cerasus: Prunus cerasus, M. fragrans: Myristica fragrans, S. aromaticum: Syzygium aromaticum, M. ferrea: Mesua ferrea, V. negundo: Vitex negundo, C. macrophylla: Callicarpa macrophylla, O. indicum: Oroxylum indicum, N. jatamansi: Nardostachys jatamansi, V. zizanioides: Vetiveria zizanioides, L. nepetifolia: Leonotis nepetifolia, D. zalil: Delphinium zalil, P. puddum: Prunus puddum, R. cordifolia: Rubia cordifolia, P. cablin: Pogostemon cablin, L. lacca: Laccifer lacca, H. mutabilis: Hibiscus mutabilis, N. neucifera: Nelumbo nucifera, J. sambac: Jasminum sambac, J. grandiflorum: Jasminum grandiflorum, A. paniculata: Andrographis paniculata, C. pluricaulis: Convolvulus pluricaulis, M. champaca: Michelia champaca, S. indica: Saraca indica, M. elengi: Mimusops elengi, O. fragrans: Osmanthus fragrans, J. pubescence: Jasminum pubescence, P. acerifolium: Pterospermum acerifolium, H. rosa-sinensis: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, B. Orellana: Bixa orellana, C. procera: Calotropis procera, C. gigantea: Calotropis gigantea, C. thevetia: Cerbera thevetia, D. stramonium: Datura stramonium, O. sanctum: Ocimum sanctum, O. pallidus: Orthosiphon pallidus, O. basilicum: Ocimum basilicum, A. vulgaris: Artemisia vulgaris, O. majorana: Origanum majorana, L. macrophylla: Leea macrophylla
Graph 1.
Vishaghana Dravyas (alexeterics) of Aushadhi Varga (drug class)
Table 2.
Vishahara Dravayas (alexeterics) of Dhatu Varga (mineral class)
| Drug name | Scientific name | Action | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Suvarna | Aurum | Vishajita | Page number-274 Verse-5 |
| Loha | Ferrum | Garajita | Page number-278 Verse-26 |
| Abhraka | Mica | Vishahana | Page number-278 Verse-30 |
| Makshika | Chalcopyrite | Vishahana | Page number-279 Verse-37 |
| Haritaal | Arsenic trisulphide/yellow arsenic | Vishahara | Page number-281 Verse-47 |
| Gairika | Red ochere | Vishapaha | Page number-281 Verse-51 |
| Kashisha | Green vitriol | Vishapaha | Page number-283 Verse-59 |
| Hingula | Red sulphide/cinnabar | Vishnuta | Page number-283 Verse-62 |
| Sindoora | Red oxide of mercury | Vishajita | Page number-284 Verse-68 |
| Souviranjana | Antimony sulphide | Vishajita | Page number-285 Verse-73 |
| Sourashtri Mritika | Potash alum | Vishaha | Page number-286 Verse-79 |
| Kardama | Unavailable | Vishajita | Page number-287 Verse-81 |
| Gorochana | Bezoar | Vishanuta | Page number-288 Verse-87 |
| Shaileyama | Parmelia perlata Ach. | Vishahana | Page number-288 Verse-89 |
| Samudraphena | Cittle fish bone | Vishajita | Page number-296 Verse-130 |
| Khatika | Chalk | Vishajita | Page number-299 Verse-145 |
Graph 2.
Vishahara Dravayas (alexeterics) of Dhatu Varga (mineral class)
Table 3.
Vishaghna Dravyas (Alexeterics) of Dhanya Varga (cereal class)
| Dravyas | Scientific name | Action | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rakta Shaali | O. sativa Linn. | Vishapha | Page number-302 Verse-10 |
| Dirghashooka | Unavailable | Vishanashaka | Page number-303 Verse-14 |
| Saramukha | Unavailable | Vishaghana | Page number-303 Verse-10 |
| Shimbidhanya | Pulses | Vishajita | Page number-309 Verse-49 |
| Nishpava | D. lablab Linn. | Vishapaha | Page number-312 Verse-62 |
| Vallishimbi | Unavailable | Vishaghana | Page number-312 Verse-64 |
| Tuvari | C. indicus Spreng. | Vishapaha | Page number-315 Verse-75 |
| Kulathi | C. absus Linn. | Vishapha | Page number-315 Verse-79 |
| Kodrava | P. scrobiculatum L. | Vishajita | Page number-319 Verse-101 |
O. sativa: Oryza sativa, D. lablab: Dolichos lablab, C. indicus: Cajanus indicus, C. absus: Cassia absus, P. scrobiculatum: Paspalum scrobiculatum
Graph 3.
Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) of Dhanya Varga (cereal class)
Table 4.
Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) of Drava Varga (liquid class)
| Drug | Scientific name | Action | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Samudra Jala | Sea water | Visharti Jita | Page number-325 Verse-17 |
| Chandrakanta Manija Jala | Blue moonstone water | Vishapha | Page number-329 Verse-44 |
| Go Dugdha | Cow’s milk | Vishahar | Page number-341 Verse-121 |
| Ushtra Dugdha | Camel’s milk | Visha Viniyachati | Page number-345 Verse-145 |
| Takra | Butter milk | Gara Viniyachati | Page number-361 Verse-232 |
| Nari Ghrut | Clarified butter from human milk | Vishanuta | Page number-369 Verse-274 |
| Hastini Ghrut | Clarified butter from elephant milk | Vishahana/Vishahanti | Page number-369 Verse-275 |
| Karambha Ghrut | Clarified butter from camel milk | Vishapaha | Page number-370 Verse-277 |
| Purana Ghrut | Clarified butter from cow’s milk | Vishahanati | Page number-371 Verse-285 |
| Kapitha Tail | Oil extracted from L. acidissima | Vishapaha | Page number-370 Verse-337 |
| Madhvasava | Infusion of Dhatki flowers and honey | Vishapaha | Page number-390 Verse-390 |
| Chaaga Mutra | Goat urine | Vishapaha | Page number-399 Verse-438 |
| Hasthi Mutra | Elephant urine | Vishapaha | Page number-399 Verse-444 |
| Rasabha Mutra | Jennet urine | Garanuta | Page number-400 Verse-447 |
| Naramutra | Human urine | Vishaghana | Page number-400 Verse-448 |
L. acidissima: Limonia acidissima
Graph 4.
Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) of Drava Varga (liquid class)
Table 5.
Compound Dravyas (substances) of different Vargas (classes) having Vishagna (anti-poisonous) properties
| Dravya | Varga | Action | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jeevniyagana | Aushadha Varga | Vishahara | Page number-23 Verse-111 |
| Samanya Gunas of Madhu | Aushadha Varga | Vishajita | Page number-37 Verse-178 |
| Bhramara Madhu | Aushadha Varga | Vishanashaka | Page number-39 Verse-189 |
| Odalaka Madhu | Aushadha Varga | Vishapaha | Page number-40 Verse-196 |
| Pakava and Ama Madhu Guna | Aushadha Varga | Vishapaha | Page number-43 Verse-216 |
| Samanya Gunas of Ratnas | Dhatu Varga | Vishapaha | Page number-298 Verse-142 |
| Samanya Gunas of Jala | Drava Varga | Vishaniyachati | Page number-323 Verse-4 |
| Samnya Gunas of Ghrut | Drava Varga | Vishapaha | Page number-368 Verse-267 |
| Saralaadi Tail Gunas | Drava Varga | Vishnuta/Vishapranuta | Page number-381 Verse-341 |
| Samanya Mutra Guna | Drava Varga | Vishaha | Page number-397 Verse-427 |
| Suranaadi Vataka | Kritaan Varga | Vishanashana | Page number-429 Verse-183 |
| Shastika Anna | Kritana Varega | Vishaghna | |
| Gonasadi Sarpa Masa | Mansa Varga | Dooshi Vishapha | Page number-421 Verse-191 |
| Mukhalepa | Vihara Varga | Vishaha | Page number-463 Verse-55 |
| Ghruta Ksheera Gandusha | Vihra Varga | Vishaprashashte | Page number-495 Verse-67 |
Graph 5.
Compound Dravyas (substances) of different Vargas (classes) having Vishagna (anti-poisonous) properties
Discussion
Eighty percentage of the world population depends on indigenous medicines for health care at primary levels, as per W. H. O., poison disrupts the health of an individual by disrupting the major domains. Kaiydeva Nighantu accounts for total of 514 medicinal varieties, out of which 178 drugs enlisted in the Nighantu possess Vishaghna (anti-poisonous) action, and at least 26% (46 drugs) are observed to possess Vishapaha property with the highest number, i.e., 32 in Aushadhaadi Varga (medicinal class), six in Drava Dravyadi (liquid substances) l, and four in each Dhatvadi Varga (mineral class) and Mishrakaadi Varga (combined substances), respectively. Eighteen drugs have been highlighted with specific indications for combating specific types of poisoning. The division of the Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) based on different Vargas indicates that the antitoxic effect is not finite to Aushadha Dravyas (medicinal herbs), it rather includes the food elements and daily regimens. Out of all, 121 Aushadha Dravyas (medicinal herbs) act as antidots and repeal various poisons as a single drug and 5 as compound drugs. Among all the groups, the various food elements included are in the form of Dhatu (minerals), Dhanya as Shuka (cereals) and Shimbi (pulses), Drava (liquids) as Jala (water), Dugdha (milk), Ghrita (clarified milk butter), Mutra (urine), as both Samanya (common), and Vishisht (specific). Ghrita (clarified butter), Ksheera (milk) Gandusha (mouth rinse), and Mukhalepa (face pack) are among the daily regimens showing antitoxic and antidotal effects, in Ayurvedic texts, oil pulling (Gandusha) has been mentioned in the daily regimens which should be done on the regular bases as it helps the body to prevent the toxins and also detoxifies the bacteria or other toxins present in the body based on the holistic perspective.[5,6] Moreover, milk and Ghrita (clarified butter) both act as antidotes being demulcents they can be counted under mechanical antidotes.[7] Water being an excellent source of removing toxins, though it may not neutralize toxins but acts like a lubricant for the organs to accelerate the rate of elimination.[8]
Various tribals use many of these medicinal herbs as antidote in snakebites and spider bites in Rajasthan, the leaf extracts of Gunja (Abrus precatorius L.) are taken orally in snakebites due to their anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activity. Root paste of Calotropis gigantea is applied locally in snakebite as antivenom due to antipyretic, analgesic, sedative, and anticonvulsant activity of the drug.[9] The Arka (Calotropis procera R. Br.).
plant latex is applied in snakebites for early cure as it is anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic. The plant Aprajita (Clitoria ternatea Linn.) root extract is taken orally by the tribals as antidote in snakebite. Latex of Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia Linn.) is applied locally on the wound as antivenom in snakebite. Koshatakai (Luffa acutangula Roxb) whole plant or crushed fruits are taken orally with water as antivenom in snakebite.[9] Tribals of Assam use the paste of leaves of Murva (Marsdenia tinctoria W. and A.) applied twice daily for 3 days on wounds in dog bites.[10] Paste of Oryza sativa grains rubbed on the body in caterpillar allergy.[10] Potassium gymnemate extracted from Meshashringi (Gymnema sylvestre R. Br) is used in neutralizing agent for snakebites.[11]
Drugs acting specifically have been notified where two drugs: Nakuli (Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. ex kurz) and Nagadamani (Aristolochia indica Linn.) have been specifically mentioned as effective against snake venom and one drug has been specified for Dooshivishapaha. Altogether, eighteen drugs have been highlighted with specific indications in combating particular types of envenomation or poisoning refer to Table 6. The drug (Nakuli) Rauwolfia serpentina has been indicated for snake, spider, scorpion, and rat bites. Research studies have been done on the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina showing anti-venomous activity against the Naja naja snake venom.[12] Another drug Nagdamini (Aristolochia indica Linn.) has been mentioned for both snake as well as spider poison. Aristolochia indica shows anti-venomous activity against various snake species, Echis carinatus, cobra, viper, Vipera russelli, and Daboia russelii venom.[13] The root extracts of Vitex negundo significantly antagonized the Vipera russellii and Naja kaouthia venom-induced lethal activity both in in-vitro and in-vivo studies.[14] Devadaali (Luffa echinate Roxb.), Nakuli (Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. ex kurz), Vishamushti (Ageratum conyzoides Linn.), and Ankota (Alangium salviifolium Linn. f. Wang.), all four drugs are indicated in rat poison. Drugs such as Haritaki (Terminalia chebula Retz.), Kareera (Capparis aphylla Roth.), Pracheenamlaka (Flacourtia cataphracta Roxb.), Peelu (Salvadora persica Linn.), Neep (Anthocephalus cadamba Mig.), Koshatakai (Luffa acutangula Roxb.), Kalsaka (Corchorus capsularis Linn.), Danti (Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg.), and Chavya (Piper chaba Hunter) along with other Dravyas such as Loha (ferrum), Takra (buttermilk), and Rashabha Mutra (jennet urine) are all indicated in Garavisha (artificial poison). In general, Vishaghna words are said as antidotes and various terms related to antidotes are used interchangeably, but they are particularly defined as Vishaghna- neutralization of poisons,[15] Vishajeeta-conquering or destroying poison,[16] Vishapha-poison repelling,[17] Vishahana, Vishanashaka-destroying poison,[18] Vishdooshini-poison corrupting, polluting, and violating.[19] Vishaha-removing poison[20] Vishahara-removing venom, goddess of venom or antidote action,[21] Vishanuda/Vishanuta-repealing poison,[22] Dushivisha-weak poison,[14] and Garavisha-combination of two or more poisonous or nonpoisonous drugs.[14] Many drugs have been justified as anti-poisonous based on their synonyms mentioned in Kaiyadeva Nighantu, such as Kapitha (Feronia elephantum Correa) as Garahruta, Vandhyakarkotaki (Momordia dioica Roxb.) as Vishaprashamani, Nakuli (Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. ex kurz) as Vishadanshtrika, Devadaali (Luffa echinate Roxb.) as Aakhuvishapha, Happusha (Juniperus communis Linn.) as Vishadushini, Girikarnika (Clitoria ternatea Linn.) as Vishaghani, and Samukha (Ocimum basilicum pilosum) as Garaghana, this shows that these drugs emphasize on the management of poison.
Table 6.
Drugs mentioned for combating specific type of poisoning
| Drug | Indication | Interpretation |
|---|---|---|
| Nakuli | Sarpa, Luta, Vrishchika, Aakhu Visha | Snake poison, spider poison, scorpion poison, rat poison |
| Nagdamni | Sarpa Luta Visha | Snake poison, spider poison |
| Vishamushti | Mooshika Vishama | Rat poison |
| Devadaali | Akhu Vishaha | Rat poison |
| Ankota | Akhu Vishaha | Rat poison |
| Gonasadi Sarpa Mamsa | Dooshivishapha | Cumulative poison |
| Haritaki | Garaha | Artificial poison |
| Kareera | Garaha | Artificial poison |
| Pracheenamlakam | Garapha | Artificial poison |
| Peelu | Garaha | Artificial poison |
| Neep | Garaha | Artificial poison |
| Koshatakai | Garaha | Artificial poison |
| Kalshaka | Garaha | Artificial poison |
| Danti | Garapha | Artificial poison |
| Chavya | Garapha | Artificial poison |
| Loha | Garajit | Artificial poison |
| Takra | Gara Viniyachati | Artificial poison |
| Rashabha mutra | Garanuta | Artificial poison |
Conclusion
The review here implies the collection of all the Vishaghna Dravyas (alexeterics) of Kaiyadeva Nighantu, which incorporates of medicinal herbs, food elements, metals, daily regimens, and various single and compound herbs for combating specific poisons. Various new drugs such as Nakuli (Rauwolfia serpentina), Sumukha (Ocimum basilicum), Happusha (Juniperus communis), Nagdamini (Aristolochia indica), Sahachara (Barleria cristata), Kinihi (Albizia procera), Neep (Anthocephalus cadamba), Pracheenaamlaka (Flacourtia cataphracta), and Buka (Osmanthus fragrans) have been referred as Vishaghan Dravyas (alexeterics) which needs to be evaluated and revalidated by new researches for the therapeutic purpose. Use of different terms for Vishaghna (anti-poisonous) at different places can be analyzed for the classification method of Vishagnha (anti-poisonous) based on Ayurvedic literature.
Financial support and sponsorship
Nil.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
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