Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Study Populationa.
| Characteristic | Participant groupsb | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reference (n = 2749) | Prenatal SSRI exposure (n = 41) | SSRI use before pregnancy (n = 77) | Prenatal depression exposure (n = 257) | Postnatal depression exposure only (n = 74) | |
| Maternal characteristics | |||||
| Age at intake, mean (SD), y | 31.2 (4.5) | 31.9 (5.3) | 31.0 (5.2) | 28.4 (5.7)c | 29.8 (5.5) |
| National origin | |||||
| Dutch | 1763 (64.1) | 27 (65.9) | 51 (66.2) | 72 (28.0)c | 31 (41.9)c |
| Non-Dutchd | 241 (8.8) | <10 | <10 | 18 (7.0) | <10 |
| Non-Dutch, non-Westerne | 745 (27.1) | 10 (24.4) | 23 (29.9) | 167 (65.0) | 39 (52.7) |
| Marital status, with partner | 2504 (91.1) | 34 (82.9) | 70 (90.9) | 170 (66.1)c | 60 (81.1)c |
| Educational level | |||||
| Primary or lower | 136 (4.9) | <10 | <10 | 46 (17.2) | <10 |
| Secondary | 1085 (39.5) | 17 (41.5) | 40 (51.9) | 155 (60.3) | 35 (47.3) |
| Higher | 1528 (55.6) | 19 (46.3) | 35 (45.5) | 56 (21.8) | 32 (43.2) |
| Monthly household income, €f | |||||
| <1200 | 319 (11.6) | 10 (24.4)c | 14 (18.2) | 120 (46.7)c | 19 (25.7)c |
| 1200-2000 | 373 (13.6) | <10 | 11 (14.3) | 54 (21.0) | 14 (18.9) |
| >2000 | 2057 (74.8) | 24 (58.5) | 52 (67.5) | 83 (32.3) | 41 (55.4) |
| Tobacco use | |||||
| Never during pregnancy | 2174 (79.1) | 24 (58.5)c | 157 (61.1)c | 157 (61.1)c | 56 (75.7) |
| Until pregnancy was known | 234 (8.5) | <10 | 13 (5.1) | 13 (5.1) | <10 |
| Continued during pregnancy | 341 (12.4) | 12 (29.3) | 87 (33.9) | 87 (33.9) | <10 |
| Cannabis use | |||||
| Never during pregnancy | 2601 (94.6) | 35 (85.4)c | 72 (93.5) | 229 (89.1)c | 70 (94.6) |
| Before pregnancy | 88 (3.2) | <10 | <10 | <10 | <10 |
| During pregnancy | 60 (2.2) | <10 | <10 | 23 (8.9) | <10 |
| Alcohol use | |||||
| Never during pregnancy | 1013 (36.8) | 17 (41.5) | 32 (41.6) | 124 (48.2)c | 33 (44.6) |
| Until pregnancy was known | 391 (14.2) | 11 (26.8) | <10 | 28 (10.9) | 12 (16.2) |
| Throughout pregnancy, occasionally | 1045 (38.0) | <10 | 29 (37.7) | 94 (36.6) | 20 (27.0) |
| Throughout pregnancy, frequently | 300 (10.9) | <10 | <10 | 11 (4.3) | <10 |
| Used benzodiazepine in pregnancy | 42 (1.5) | 11 (26.8)c | 15 (19.5)c | <10 | <10 |
| Pregnancy complications | |||||
| Preeclampsia | 55 (2.0) | 0 | <10 | <10 | <10 |
| Gestational hypertension | 115 (4.2) | <10 | <10 | <10 | <10 |
| GSI at 20 wk gestation, mean (SD)g | 0.18 (0.20) | 0.78 (0.79)c | 0.31 (0.27)c | 1.06 (0.50)c | 0.42 (0.28)c |
| Depressive symptom score, mean (SD)g | |||||
| At 20 wk gestation | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.82 (0.9)c | 0.17 (0.2)c | 1.42 (0.6)c | 0.3 (0.2)c |
| Offspring aged 2 mo (n = 2216) | 0.09 (0.2) | 0.57 (0.7)c | 0.6 (0.8)c | 0.85 (0.8)c | 1.4 (0.6)c |
| Offspring aged 6 mo (n = 1973) | 0.14 (0.3) | 0.71 (0.8)c | 0.63 (0.8)c | 0.85 (0.9)c | 0.73 (0.7)c |
| Child characteristics | |||||
| Sex | |||||
| Female | 1447 (52.6) | 21 (51.2) | 43 (55.8) | 126 (49.0) | 33 (44.6) |
| Male | 1302 (47.4) | 20 (48.8) | 34 (44.2) | 131 (51.0) | 41 (55.4) |
| Gestational age at birth, mean (SD), wk | 39.9 (1.7) | 38.8 (3.3)c | 40.1 (1.2) | 39.7 (2.1) | 39.8 (1.7) |
| Preterm birth (<37 wk) | 139 (5.1) | <10 | 0 | 23 (8.9) | <10 |
| Low birth weight (<2500 g) | 128 (4.7) | <10 | <10 | 15 (5.8) | <10 |
| Low 5-min Apgar score (<7) | 25 (0.9) | <10 | <10 | <10 | <10 |
| Age at MRI scan, mean (SD), y | |||||
| T1 (n = 830) | 7.03 (0.8) | 6.97 (0.7)c | 6.99 (0.7) | 7.04 (0.7) | 6.97 (0.7) |
| T2 (n = 2458) | 10.3 (0.8) | 10.3 (0.7) | 10.35 (0.8) | 10.47 (0.8) | 10.22 (0.7) |
| T3 (n = 2216) | 13.8 (0.6) | 13.8 (0.5) | 13.81 (0.6) | 13.78 (0.6) | 13.83 (0.7) |
Abbreviations: GSI, Global Severity Index; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.
Pooled imputed data are shown (except for maternal depressive symptom scores), and data are reported as number (percentage) of participants unless otherwise indicated. Data reported as less than 10 participants indicate a small number and the potential for self-identification.
Reference was no SSRI use and low score on depression symptoms during pregnancy; prenatal SSRI exposure, children exposed to SSRIs during pregnancy; SSRI use before pregnancy, low score on depression symptoms during pregnancy and maternal SSRI use before pregnancy; prenatal depression exposure, children exposed to clinically relevant depressive symptoms during the pregnancy; and postnatal depression exposure only, no SSRI use and children exposed to clinically relevant depressive symptoms only in the postnatal period.
P < .05 vs reference, derived from analysis of variance and Kruskal-Wallis tests for continuous variables and χ2 tests for categorical variables.
Included European, Western American, and Western Asian.
Included African, Cape Verdean, Dutch Antillean, Indonesian, Moroccan, non-Western American, non-Western Asian, Oceanian, Surinamese, and Turkish.
In which €1 is equal to US $1.12 in 2023.
Scores range from 0 to 4, with higher scores indicating more clinically relevant psychological symptoms.