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. 2023 Aug 23;55(8):1595–1619. doi: 10.1038/s12276-023-01046-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a, b Hypothetical depiction of the origin of mitochondria from Aerobic Proteobacterium and mitochondrial simplified structure. c Microstructure and enzyme complexes of mitochondria. d Mitochondrial functions rely on cellular interactions. OMM Outer mitochondrial membrane, IMM Inner mitochondrial membrane, IMS Intermembrane mitochondrial space, mtDNA Mitochondrial DNA, ROS Reactive oxygen species, ER Endoplasmic reticulum, ATP Adenosine triphosphate.