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. 2023 Aug 23;55(8):1573–1594. doi: 10.1038/s12276-023-01078-x

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© The Author(s) 2023, corrected publication 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — A The figure shows three types of autophagy, namely, macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy. Macroautophagy involves the formation of double-membrane vesicles that engulf cytoplasmic components and organelles and then fuse with lysosomes to form autolysosomes. Microautophagy involves engulfing cytoplasmic components and organelles directly into lysosomes. Chaperone-mediated autophagy degrades specific proteins via chaperone proteins that transport them to lysosomes. B The figure highlights the contrast between autophagy and autosis, two processes involving autophagy. While autophagic cell death is a result of excessive autophagy, autosis is characterized by three distinct phases characterized by cells with unique morphological features and is triggered by various signals, such as Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, Tat-Beclin 1, and hypoxia–ischemia.