Table 4.

Challenges of CPHE from a comparative perspective between China side and Africa or international partners

Items	China side	Africa or international partners
Public health system infrastructure construction	The Africanisation of Chinese Programmes. Sustainability of CPHE in Africa.	Sustainability issues such as operation and maintenance.
Malaria prevention and control	Tapping into the Chinese experiences; Africanisation of the Chinese experience; encountering different working cultures; encountering local African social culture; language barriers.	Understanding and taking on the Chinese experience; language barriers; the role of China in the transfer of communities; the role of international partners.
Multi-partnership model	The degree of Chinese leadership; multiparty cooperation mechanisms and role setting; lack of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for multiparty participation.	The role to be played, participatory or dominant; the degree and scope of participation.
Participation in emergencies or local public health events	Highly applicable aid programmes and products; issues of effective communication with African parties; ethical issues of different societies and cultures.	Location and scope of assistance; coordination mechanisms; communication and interaction.
Chinese parties implementing and participating in the programmes	Single discipline, such as public health and preventive medicine; lack of basic knowledge of the African society and culture; lack of multidisciplinary perspective; political and diplomatic level considerations; concerns about local social security.	Communicating with Chinese partners who do not have much background in African humanities and social knowledge; effective visa and social ethics issues for Chinese entry into Africa; how to effectively translate the discourse and knowledge of Chinese partners.
Provide global public goods	Encounter African history and culture; transportation, maintenance and access.	Product applicability; timeliness of national logistics, distribution, access.

CPHE, China’s public health engagement.