Table 3.
Intakes of energy (kJ/d) and food groups (g/d) according to the tertiles (T) of the energy contribution of highly processed foods; Japanese adults aged 20–69 years (n 388), 2013
| Dish-level classification* | Food-level classification† | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | T1 | T2 | T3 | T1 | T2 | T3 | ||||||||||
| (n 388) | (n 129) | (n 130) | (n 129) | (n 129) | (n 130) | (n 129) | ||||||||||
| Mean | s d | Mean‡ | se | Mean‡ | se | Mean‡ | se | P trend § | Mean‡ | se | Mean‡ | se | Mean‡ | se | P trend § | |
| Energy intake (kJ/d) | 8912 | 2038 | 8812 | 162 | 9005 | 158 | 8919 | 165 | 0·64 | 8680 | 161 | 9058 | 158 | 8997 | 162 | 0·21 |
| Cereals and starchy foods | 500 | 155 | 545 | 11 | 498 | 11 | 457 | 12 | < 0·0001 | 542 | 11 | 506 | 11 | 452 | 11 | < 0·0001 |
| White rice | 324 | 145 | 386 | 11 | 322 | 11 | 266 | 11 | < 0·0001 | 374 | 11 | 333 | 11 | 266 | 11 | < 0·0001 |
| Brown rice | 3 | 27 | 7 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0·11 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0·29 |
| White bread | 34 | 30 | 26 | 3 | 36 | 3 | 39 | 3 | 0·001 | 26 | 3 | 33 | 3 | 42 | 3 | < 0·0001 |
| Wholegrain bread | 1 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0·93 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0·97 |
| Noodles | 76 | 69 | 67 | 6 | 70 | 6 | 91 | 6 | 0·01 | 72 | 6 | 73 | 6 | 84 | 6 | 0·13 |
| Other grain products | 18 | 21 | 15 | 2 | 19 | 2 | 20 | 2 | 0·03 | 19 | 2 | 16 | 2 | 19 | 2 | 0·95 |
| Potatoes | 44 | 35 | 45 | 3 | 48 | 3 | 39 | 3 | 0·22 | 46 | 3 | 46 | 3 | 40 | 3 | 0·17 |
| Fruits, vegetables and pulses | 405 | 190 | 447 | 15 | 404 | 15 | 363 | 15 | 0·0001 | 461 | 15 | 401 | 15 | 352 | 15 | < 0·0001 |
| Fruit | 62 | 70 | 67 | 5 | 56 | 5 | 63 | 6 | 0·56 | 67 | 5 | 62 | 5 | 56 | 5 | 0·18 |
| Total vegetable | 259 | 121 | 290 | 10 | 269 | 10 | 219 | 10 | < 0·0001 | 296 | 10 | 261 | 10 | 221 | 10 | < 0·0001 |
| Pulses | 60 | 53 | 66 | 5 | 58 | 5 | 55 | 5 | 0·14 | 74 | 5 | 56 | 5 | 50 | 5 | 0·0006 |
| Fruit and vegetable juice | 24 | 54 | 25 | 5 | 22 | 5 | 26 | 5 | 0·88 | 25 | 5 | 22 | 5 | 25 | 5 | 0·95 |
| Meat, fish and eggs | 198 | 75 | 204 | 6 | 206 | 6 | 184 | 6 | 0·04 | 209 | 6 | 208 | 6 | 176 | 6 | 0·0001 |
| Meat | 91 | 53 | 93 | 5 | 91 | 4 | 90 | 5 | 0·60 | 95 | 4 | 96 | 4 | 83 | 4 | 0·05 |
| Fish | 69 | 46 | 70 | 4 | 75 | 4 | 62 | 4 | 0·20 | 74 | 4 | 74 | 4 | 59 | 4 | 0·006 |
| Eggs | 38 | 22 | 41 | 2 | 40 | 2 | 33 | 2 | 0·005 | 40 | 2 | 39 | 2 | 34 | 2 | 0·03 |
| Dairy products | 105 | 96 | 108 | 9 | 111 | 8 | 97 | 9 | 0·40 | 106 | 9 | 104 | 8 | 107 | 9 | 0·92 |
| Ice cream | 4 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0·77 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0·25 |
| Cheese | 4 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0·27 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0·37 |
| Milk | 64 | 81 | 72 | 7 | 70 | 7 | 52 | 7 | 0·07 | 70 | 7 | 60 | 7 | 63 | 7 | 0·51 |
| Yoghurt | 26 | 41 | 25 | 4 | 27 | 3 | 26 | 4 | 0·91 | 27 | 4 | 25 | 3 | 26 | 4 | 0·78 |
| Other dairy products | 7 | 26 | 4 | 2 | 7 | 2 | 11 | 2 | 0·03 | 3 | 2 | 9 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 0·03 |
| Confectioneries | 38 | 34 | 28 | 3 | 38 | 3 | 48 | 3 | < 0·0001 | 23 | 3 | 41 | 3 | 50 | 3 | < 0·0001 |
| Sweet buns | 5 | 12 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 1 | 6 | 1 | 0·04 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 0·0004 |
| Salty snacks | 4 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 0·17 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 0·01 |
| Chocolates, biscuits and cookies | 8 | 11 | 6 | 1 | 7 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 0·008 | 5 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 0·0007 |
| Other confectionaries | 21 | 25 | 15 | 2 | 22 | 2 | 27 | 2 | 0·0003 | 13 | 2 | 24 | 2 | 27 | 2 | < 0·0001 |
| Alcoholic beverages | 137 | 257 | 77 | 21 | 140 | 21 | 193 | 21 | 0·0002 | 49 | 20 | 123 | 20 | 239 | 20 | < 0·0001 |
| Beer | 95 | 227 | 52 | 19 | 89 | 19 | 145 | 20 | 0·001 | 32 | 19 | 81 | 18 | 173 | 19 | < 0·0001 |
| Wine | 7 | 34 | 7 | 3 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 3 | 0·76 | 3 | 3 | 8 | 3 | 10 | 3 | 0·15 |
| Japanese Sake | 19 | 61 | 2 | 3 | 11 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 0·28 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 3 | 14 | 3 | 0·002 |
| Shochu | 7 | 34 | 9 | 5 | 22 | 5 | 26 | 5 | 0·03 | 7 | 5 | 18 | 5 | 33 | 5 | 0·0005 |
| Other alcoholic beverages | 9 | 20 | 6 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 0·13 | 6 | 2 | 11 | 2 | 9 | 2 | 0·30 |
| Non-alcoholic beverages | 1344 | 646 | 1314 | 58 | 1390 | 56 | 1328 | 59 | 0·84 | 1265 | 57 | 1360 | 56 | 1407 | 58 | 0·10 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | 40 | 88 | 25 | 8 | 40 | 8 | 56 | 8 | 0·006 | 17 | 8 | 38 | 7 | 65 | 8 | < 0·0001 |
| Tea | 481 | 360 | 484 | 32 | 485 | 31 | 474 | 33 | 0·83 | 474 | 32 | 518 | 31 | 452 | 32 | 0·55 |
| Coffee | 310 | 397 | 287 | 36 | 345 | 35 | 298 | 36 | 0·79 | 264 | 35 | 306 | 35 | 361 | 35 | 0·06 |
| Non-caloric beverages | 2 | 15 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0·17 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0·92 |
| Water | 510 | 349 | 515 | 31 | 516 | 31 | 499 | 32 | 0·73 | 509 | 31 | 495 | 31 | 528 | 31 | 0·64 |
| Fats and oils | 21 | 10 | 19 | 1 | 23 | 1 | 22 | 1 | 0·004 | 20 | 1 | 22 | 1 | 23 | 1 | 0·03 |
| Oils | 10 | 6 | 9 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 0·28 | 10 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 0·86 |
| Fats | 4 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0·0004 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0·06 |
| Mayonnaise and dressing | 7 | 6 | 7 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 7 | 1 | 0·34 | 6 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 0·04 |
| Seasonings and spices | 128 | 84 | 114 | 7 | 132 | 7 | 137 | 8 | 0·03 | 141 | 7 | 125 | 7 | 117 | 7 | 0·03 |
| Sugar | 13 | 11 | 11 | 1 | 12 | 1 | 16 | 1 | < 0·0001 | 12 | 1 | 14 | 1 | 14 | 1 | 0·09 |
| Jam | 2 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0·84 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0·69 |
| Salt | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0·57 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0·25 |
| Soy sauce | 17 | 9 | 18 | 1 | 18 | 1 | 16 | 1 | 0·31 | 18 | 1 | 18 | 1 | 16 | 1 | 0·055 |
| Other seasonings | 94 | 80 | 82 | 7 | 99 | 7 | 101 | 7 | 0·07 | 108 | 7 | 89 | 7 | 84 | 7 | 0·03 |
| Ready-made dishes | 31 | 38 | 30 | 3 | 29 | 3 | 35 | 3 | 0·35 | 23 | 3 | 31 | 3 | 40 | 3 | 0·0008 |
| Ready-to-eat dishes‖ | 22 | 36 | 20 | 3 | 20 | 3 | 26 | 3 | 0·14 | 14 | 3 | 22 | 3 | 31 | 3 | 0·0001 |
| Pickles | 9 | 14 | 11 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 0·24 | 10 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 0·61 |
Dishes prepared away from home (e.g. ready-made dishes from the supermarket and restaurant meals) were classified without recipe disaggregation.
Dishes prepared away from home (e.g. ready-made dishes from the supermarket and restaurant meals) were classified after disaggregation into food ingredients.
Least square means adjusted for age, BMI, physical activity, sex, education level and smoking status.
Derived from linear regression using the median value in each tertile category of the energy contribution of highly processed food as a continuous variable. The median (range) energy contribution (%) of highly processed foods per tertile were as follows: 1st = 32·5 (14·8–40·9), 2nd = 47·7 (41·2–54·2) and 3rd = 62·7 (54·5–100) for the dish-level classification method; and 1st = 21·9 (9·6–26·7), 2nd = 31·1 (26·9–37·4) and 3rd = 43·6 (37·5–79·6) for the food-level classification method. The models were adjusted for age, BMI, physical activity, sex, education level and smoking status.
Including ready-to-eat or ready-to-heat foods such as curry, Chinese dumplings, Hamburg steak, pilaf, meatballs and croquettes.