Table 2.

Characteristics of the included systematic reviews

Author(s), publication year	Aim of the review	Inclusion criteria of studies	Included studies (n)	Duration of the intervention, mean or range	Outcomes	Theoretical/behavioral frameworks/techniques utilized
Ang et al. (2021)	Determine the efficacy of interventions incorporating apps for weight loss and health behavior change in the Asian population	Published in English, interventions delivered partially or fully through a mobile app, minimal study duration 2 mo, age ≥ 18, participants were of Asian ethnicity, outcome weight change	21	Mean 18 wk, range 8 wk to 52 wk	Weight change (kg or %), BMI, waist circumference	N/A
Antoun et al. (2022)	To review studies evaluating the effectiveness of smartphone apps on weight loss when combined with other interventions	RCTs, included the use of a smartphone app, weight loss as an outcome, adults only	34	6 wk to 96 wk	Mean weight change (kg) from baseline to 3, 6, and 12 months	Social cognitive theory, transtheoretical model, self-efficacy theory
Beleigoli et al. (2019)	Investigate the effectiveness of web-based digital health interventions for weight loss and lifestyle habit changes	BMI ≥ 25, age ≥ 18, no pregnant people, RCTs examining web-based digital interventions vs. offline or in-person interventions or waitlist, overweight or obesity as a primary selection criterion	11	N/A	weight, BMI	Several behavioral strategies, e.g., goal setting, self-monitoring and management, social support, modeling and feedback
Berry and Kassavou et al. (2021)	Examine if digital self-monitoring of diet and PA is effective at supporting weight loss, increasing PA or improving eating behavior in adults with obesity or overweight, explore intervention components that might explain variations in effectiveness	BMI ≥ 25, age ≥ 18, interventions enabling digital self-monitoring of both eating behavior and PA, RCTs, comparison groups did not use digital self-monitoring	12	3 mo to 12 mo	Weight loss, physical activity, eating behavior	Self-monitoring, goal setting, feedback, social support, education
Berry and Sala et al. (2021)	Examine the effectiveness of automated digital interventions for improving the outcomes of human coach-delivered weight loss treatment	Individuals aged ≥ 18 with overweight or obesity, peer-reviewed academic journal articles written in English, reported directly quantitative outcomes of an RCT or quasi-RCT with a prepost design, at least one arm with treatment supplemented with a fully automated digital intervention and one without, ADI did not solely track calorie intake	13	12 wk to 24 mo	weight change	Behavior change theory, self-regulation theory, social cognitive theory, health belief model
Besson et al. (2020)	To examine the effectiveness of theoretical and operational inputs in digital interventions for healthy eating	Published in English, adult participants free from other acute illnesses or chronic disease, digital devices primary means of intervention in at least one treatment group, outcome weight loss or weight maintenance	15	mean 32 wk (SD 25.6)	Quantitative measures relating to weight loss or weight loss maintenance	Monitoring, feedback or social support
Chew et al. (2022)	Examine the effects, and the sustainability of these effects, of smartphone apps on anthropometric, metabolic, and dietary outcomes	BMI ≥ 25 for Western populations or ≥ 23 for Asian populations, weight loss as an outcome, reported outcomes beyond the baseline and after the intervention, RCTs, written in English	16	12 wk to 24 mo, FU 8 wk to 24 mo	Weight loss, waist circumference, HDL, LDL, HbA1c, energy intake, blood pressure	Self-monitoring, social support, goal setting, feedback
Dounavi et al. (2019)	To identify existing evidence on the efficacy of mobile health technology in facilitating weight management behaviors	Peer-reviewed primary studies published between 2012 and 2017, adults of typical intellectual ability only, outcome weight loss or management	39 (17 NRSIs, 22 RCTs)	N/A	Weight change, weight management behaviors, use of mobile technology	Feedback, peer support, goal setting, self-monitoring
Holmes et al. (2018)	Examine the effectiveness of interventions using digital technology for weight loss maintenance	Main outcome weight loss maintenance, digital health technologies only, RCTs, published in English between 2006 and February 2018	7	3 mo to 30 mo, mean 12 mo	BMI, BMI-SDS (BMI Standard Deviation Score), weight change	Self-monitoring and reporting, behavior reinforcement
Houser et al. (2019)	To identify different types of technologies used for obesity management and their outcomes	Published in English between 2010 and 2017, peer-reviewed, empirical studies, used some form of digital technology, conducted inside the USA, adults with no cognitive impairments, sample size > 10	23	N/A	Weight change (kg or %), change in BMI, physical activity, dietary intake habits, and time spent in sedentary positions	N/A
Huang et al. (2018)	Evaluate the clinical effectiveness of telemedicine on changes in BMI for people with overweight, obesity, diabetes, or hypertension	Age ≥ 19, RCTs, one arm involved any form of telemedicine, one control group receiving usual care or standard treatment, main outcome BMI, original articles published in English or Chinese	25	9 wk to 2 yr	BMI	N/A
Islam et al. (2020)	Assess the efficacy of mobile phone app interventions for weight loss and increasing physical activity	Written in English, mobile app interventions, study design included control group, outcomes included changes in body weight, BMI, or waist circumference	12	6 wk to 9 mo	Weight loss, BMI, PA	N/A
Jahangiry et al. (2021)	Investigate the effectiveness of web-based interventional programs for weight loss	BMI ≥ 25, age ≥ 18, apparently healthy individuals, RCTs on web-based interventions with a non-web user control group, primary outcome percentage change in body weight	8	12 to 24 wk	weight	Theory of planned behavior, social cognitive theory, behavioral change theory, cognitive behavioral theory
LeBlanc et al. (2018)	Investigate the benefits and harms of behavioral and pharmacotherapy weight loss and weight loss maintenance interventions in adults	Age ≥ 18, BMI ≥ 25 or other suboptimal weight-related measure, weight loss or weight maintenance as a primary outcome, population generalizable to the primary care population, controls received no or minimal intervention or were attention controls	124 (20 utilizing eHealth)	N/A	Health outcomes (mortality, morbidity, depression, health-related quality of life, disability), intermediate outcomes (weight measurements, adiposity measures, incidence or prevalence of obesity-related conditions), adverse events (treatment-related harms)	N/A
Lahtio et al. (2022)	Examine the effectiveness of PA promoting web- and mobile-based distance weight loss interventions in rehabilitation settings on body composition	Age 18–65 years, PA-promoting web- and mobile-based distance weight loss interventions in rehabilitation settings, control groups did not use technology, RCTs, outcomes included BMI, waist circumference, or body fat percentage, published in English, Finnish, or Swedish	30	Mean 30,4 wk, range 4wk to 2yrs	BMI, waist circumference, body fat percentage	N/A
Lau et al. (2020)	Investigate the effectiveness and identify key features of personalized eHealth interventions for weight loss	BMI ≥ 25, age 18–64 years, tailored eHealth interventions incorporating one or more behavioral change techniques, controls received no eHealth intervention, primary outcome weight change	15	12 to 48 wk	Weight	Diverse behavioral strategies, e.g., self-monitoring, goal setting, social support, motivational interviewing and/or prompts
Lee et al. (2022)	To review RCTs on weight loss interventions using digital health for employees with obesity	Adult employees with overweight or obesity, weight loss interventions using digital health, outcome weight or BMI, RCTs published in English or Korean	11	12 wk to 12 mo	Weight change (kg)	Social cognitive theory
Mamalaki et al. (2022)	To examine the effects of technology-based interventions for weight loss maintenance	RCTs, published in English, adults only, at least one web- or app-based intervention arm vs. a control group of minimum intervention or in-person intervention, outcome weight change after the weight maintenance period	12	3 mo to 30 mo	Weight change	Self-monitoring, goal setting, feedback
Mata-Gonzáles et al. (2020)	Examine the efficacy of online interventions for weight loss for adults	Open-access original articles published in English or Spanish, online weight loss interventions, quantitative empirical studies, participants aged 18–60 with overweight or obesity	21	6 wk to 140 wk	Primary outcome change in weight (kg), secondary outcomes body fat, waist circumference, BMI	Self-monitoring, goal setting, social support, feedback
Novaes et al. (2022)	To evaluate the efficacy of digital and hybrid interventions for weight loss for people with severe mental illness	People with severe mental illness (e.g. bipolar disorder, psychotic disorders), illness not in the acute phase, remote or hybrid conducted psychoeducative interventions for weight loss and improved health behavior, age 18–65 years; outcomes related to obesity and weight loss	16 (7 remotes, 9 hybrids)	Remote: 8 wk to 48 wk; hybrid: 10 wk to 52 wk	Change in weight (BMI), outcomes related to metabolic markers and metabolic syndrome	N/A
O’Boyle et al. (2022)	To evaluate the use of mobile technology versus web-based interventions and weight loss outcomes with or without individualized clinician feedback in adults with overweight or obesity	RCTs or controlled cohort studies (with n ≥ 25, dropout rate ≤ 20% or > 20% intent to treat calculated), age ≥ 18, studies not focusing on disease, participants in good health and not pregnant, published in English between January 2010 and January 2020	14	8 wk to 24 mo; eHealth 12 wk to 18 mo	Weight	Self-monitoring, feedback, goal setting
Podina et al. (2018)	Investigate the efficacy of multicomponent behavioral e-health interventions for weight loss	BMI ≥ 25, age ≥ 18, RCTs in which a multicomponent behavioral eHealth intervention was compared with a passive control and/or an active in-person treatment intervention	47	3 mo to 24 mo	Weight loss, BMI, waist circumference, body fat percentage, waist-to-hip ratio, PA, eating behaviors	Social cognitive theory in most interventions; most used techniques were intention formation, self-monitoring, feedback, social support
Puigdomènech et al. (2019)	Examine the efficacy and safety of mHealth interventions (mobile phone apps) for weight control, overweight, and obesity management	assessed the efficacy and/or safety and/or effectiveness of mHealth interventions for overweight or obesity management, sample size over 10	28	3 wk to 24 mo	Efficacy (changes in PA and diet), safety	Feedback, goal setting, self-monitoring
Rumbo-Rodriguez et al. (2020)	Examine how different types of technologies (e.g., mobile phones, internet, social networks, virtual reality) may aid in weight loss in patients with overweight or obesity	BMI ≥ 25, age ≥ 18, published in English or Spanish, studies with at least two groups for comparison where at least one group received an intervention through technology, outcomes included weight	47	N/A	weight loss	Self-monitoring, feedback
Shi et al. (2022)	Examine the effectiveness and components of web-based interventions for overweight or obesity	BMI ≥ 25, age ≥ 18, no pregnant people, RCTs examining a web-based intervention, reported weight change as an outcome, original papers written in English or Japanese	97	2 to 24 mo	Weight change, intervention components	Mostly used behavioral approaches in interventions: self-monitoring, social support, goal setting, information about health consequences
Varela et al. (2021)	To assess the effectiveness of Internet-based behavioral treatments for adults with overweight and obesity, includes network meta-analysis	Age 18–65 years, BMI 25–39.9 kg/m2, web-based behavioral weight loss interventions, main outcome weight change (kg), RCTs only	15	Median 18.3 wk, range 12 to 48 wk	Weight change (kg)	N/A

BMI body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared), RCT randomized controlled trial, NRSI non-randomized study of intervention, ADI automated digital intervention, PA physical activity, SD standard deviation, FU follow up, wk week, mo month, yr year