Table 2.

Anti-inflammatory effects of P. oleracea and its constituents.

Extracts	Effective doses	Model of study	Effects	References
Hydroethanolic	160 µg/ml	Lymphocyte	↓ IL-4, IL-10, and NO production	[54]
Aqueous	100 µg/ml	Vascular endothelial cells	↓ mRNA expressions of MCP-1 and IL-8	[55]
Ethanol	200 µg/ml	RAW 264.7 cells	↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6	[98]
POL-P3b	250 µg/ml	DCs	↑ IL-12, TNF-α, and IL-10	[57]
Ethanol	0.5 and 1 mg/ml	RAW 264.7 cells	↓ NO production and mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-1-β	[58]
Aqueous	1–200 μg/ml	HUVECs	↓ TNF-α-induced overexpression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin	[55]
Hydroalcoholic	100 μg/ml	PBMCs	↓ TNF-α and IL-6	[59]
Polysaccharide	600 µg/ml	Rat	↑ T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes	[60]
Hydroethanolic	1, 2, and 4 mg/ml	Rat	↓ TP, PLA2, and IgE	[62]
Hydroethanolic	1, 2, and 4 mg/ml	Rat	↓ Serum levels of NO2, NO3, and total WBC count	[63]
Hydroalcoholic	50, 100, and 200 mg/kg	Rat	↓ IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, PGE2, and TGF-β	[64]
			↑ IL-10
Aqueous	300 mg/kg/day	Mice	↓ NF-κB p65 activation	[65]
			↑ Expression of TGF-β1 and ICAM-1
Aqueous	300 mg/kg/day	Mice	↓ Overexpression of VCAM-1, ICAM-1, E-selectin, MMP-2, and ET-1	[66]
Hydroalcoholic	100 and 200 mg/kg	Rat	↓ Pain-related behaviors and contents of TNF-α and IL1β	[68]
Hydroalcoholic	400 mg/kg	Rat	↓ Level of TNF-α	[69]
			↑ Improved memory
Methanolic	500 mg/kg	Rat	↓ TNF-α and TGF-β	[70]
Aqueous	1, 2, and 4 g/kg	Mice	↓ TNF-α, IL-1b, and IL-6	[71]
Aqueous	400 mg/kg/day	Mice	↓ TNF-α, IL1β, and NF-κB	[72]
Purslane powder	8% purslane + 100 mg/l CdCl2 in water	Mice	↓ TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IFN-γ	[73]
Hydroethanolic	100 and 300 mg/kg/day	Rat	Improved MDA, TNF-α, and TGF-β1	[74]
Aqueous and ultrasound-assisted ethanol	3 mL 1 g/mL	Mice	Inhibited TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-4	[75]
Hydroethanolic	100 and 300 mg/kg/day	Rat	↓ IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β	[76]
			↑ IL-10
ALA	125 μM	HCE cells	↓ Protein and mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, and TNF-α	[80]
ALA	100 μM	THP-1 cells	↓ Secretion and mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNFα. ALA	[81]
ALA	5 and 10 mg/kg	RAW 264.7 cells	↓ Production of NO. and inhibited iNOS, COX-2, and TNF-α gene expressions induced by LPS	[82]
ALA	6.5% of energy	PBMCs of patients	↓ Production of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α	[83]
ALA	60 mg/kg	Mice	Suppressed NF-κB and IL-1β	[84]
ALA	10% ALA	Mice	↓ IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα	[85]
ALA	500 and 2000 mg/kg	Mice	↓ IL-6 and IL-1β in nasal mucosa	[86]
ALA	8 g	Human	↓ C-reactive protein (CRP), serum amyloid A (SAA), and IL-6 levels	[87]
Quercetin	100 µg/ml	DCs	↓ IL-1α, IL-1 β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 p70), and chemokines (MCP-1, MIP-1 a, and MIP-1 b)	[89]
Quercetin	40 µM	Th cells	↓ IL-2, IFN-γ, and IL-2Ra expressions	[90]
Quercetin	10, 25 and 50 µM	PBMC	↓ IL-4	[91]
			↑ IFN-γ
Quercetin	50 µM	PBMC	↓ IL-1β, TNF-α, MMP-9, and TIMP-1	[92]
Quercetin	50 µM	BMDM	↓ iNOS expression, TNF-α, IL-1β protein expression, and IkB-α phosphorylation	[94]
Quercetin	10–30 μmol/L	HUVEC	↓ NFκB and expression of VCAM-1 and E-selectin	[93]
Quercetin	0.1%, w/w	Mice	↓ IL-1R, CCL8, IKK, serum amyloid A, and fibrinogen	[93]
Quercetin	1 mg/kg/	Rat	↓ TNF-α, IL-1β expression, and iNOS	[94]
Quercetin	1 mg/kg	Mice	↓ IL-4, IL-5 secretion, mRNA expression of MMP-9, and EPO	[95]
			↑ IFN-γ
Quercetin	1500 mg/day, p.o.	Human	↓ IL-6 and ICAM-1	[96]
			↑ IL-10
Quercetin	50 mg/kg	Mice	↓ Th17 cells and gut inflammation	[97]
			↑ Treg cells

DCs: dendritic cells; HUVECs: human umbilical vein endothelial cells; PBMCs: human peripheral blood mononuclear cells; IL: interleukin; NO: nitric oxide; MCP: monocyte chemoattractant protein; TIMP-1: tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1; CCL8: chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 8; IKK: IκB kinase; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; TP: total protein; PLA2: phospholipase A2; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; TGF-β: transforming growth factor beta; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; ET-1: endothelin-1; EPO: erythropoietin; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule-1; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; HCE: human corneal epithelial; ALA: alpha-linolenic acid.