Table 2.

Recently developed immunotherapies for glioblastoma.

Immunotherapy	Description	References
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI)	Monoclonal antibodies that block either the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) pathways, resulting in the activation of T cells to target cancer cells	[35]
Therapeutic cancer vaccines	Immunogenic agents designed to stimulate antigen presentation and immune activation against cancer cells	[36]
Chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) T-cell therapies	T cells are genetically engineered to express CAR that can recognise specific tumour antigens	[37]
Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT)	Engineered viruses selectively infect and kill cancer cells, inducing an immune response against tumour antigens	[38]