Table 1.
Comparative analysis of human mammaglobin and other breast cancer markers.
| Tumour Marker | Specific Remarks |
|---|---|
| Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) | Noted for its involvement in recurrence and correlation with circulating tumor cell discovery, yet its sensitivity is considered low [23]. |
| Cytokeratins (CK19 and CK20) | Known for their low sensitivity, these markers can be found in both normal cells and a variety of tumors [30]. |
| Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) | Similar to cytokeratins, EGFR presents with low sensitivity and can be identified in normal cells and various tumors [31]. |
| Maspin | This marker is associated with a reduced risk of recurrence [32]. |
| Polymorphic epithelial mucin (MUC-1) | Adverse outcomes are linked to high pre-operative CA 15-3 levels. CA27-29 offers little utility. Low sensitivity and expression in normal cells and hematological tumors are its key characteristics [33,34]. |
| B726P | When used in tandem with hMAG, B726P could aid in distinguishing between mammary and non-mammary tissues [35]. |
| Urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) | The presence of this marker might provide valuable information for prognosis [36]. |
| Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) | Similar to uPA, PAI-1 can be helpful in determining prognosis [37]. |
| Estrogen receptor (ER) | Detectable in primary lung adenocarcinomas, ER is used for predicting hormonal therapy responses in breast cancer despite its limited prognostic significance [38]. |
| Progesterone receptor (PR) | PR is considered a key factor for hormonal therapy [39]. |
| Human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2) | Human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2) is highly expressed in breast cancers with an amplified ERBB2 gene, i.e., those of the HER2 molecular subtype, making HER-2 instrumental in the selection process for Herceptin therapy [40]. |
| Breast cancer 1 and 2 early onset (BRAC-1 and BRAC-2) | These markers can assist in identifying high-risk patients [41]. |
| Small breast epithelial mucin (SBEM) | SBEM is detectable in roughly 52% of breast tumors, with no presence in non-breast tumors [42]. |
| Survivin | This marker does not have specificity for breast cancer [43]. |
| Ki67 | Ki67 is thought to act as an indicator of breast cancer progression [44]. |
| Gross cystic disease fluid protein 15 (GCDFP-15) | This marker is noted for its significant link with mammary differentiation and has shown a correlation with mammaglobin expression. Research is ongoing into its potential as a breast cancer biomarker [45]. |
| Human mammaglobin (hMAG) | hMAG exhibits high expression (80–90%) in breast tumors and is particularly sensitive (97%) in detecting residual disease [9]. |