Table 1.
Main metabolic pathways induced by hyperglycemia. AGE—advanced glycation end products; DAG—diacylglycerol; DKD—diabetic kidney disease; PKC—protein kinase C; ROS—reactive oxygen species; UDP-GlcNAc—uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine.
| Pathway | Main Substrate | Main Product(s) | Cellular Alterations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Polyol pathway | glucose | sorbitol; fructose | - induction of osmotic and oxidative stress |
| - increased usage of NADPH | |||
| Hexosaminepathway | fructose-6-phosphate | UDP-GlcNAc | - alterations in gene expression |
| - increased ROS production | |||
| - increased caspase-3 activity | |||
| PKC pathway | dihydroxyacetonephosphate | DAG | - activation of PKC |
| - increased ROS production | |||
| - decreased nitric oxide | |||
| AGE pathway | variable: proteins, glucose, amino acids, metabolites |
AGE | - increased ROS production |
| - activation of inflammatory response | |||
| - decreased nitric oxide and taurine production |