Table 1.

Impact of Cd toxicity on different plant species.

Plant Species	Level of Cd	Changes/Damages	References
Seed germination and seedling growth
Pisum sativum L.	20–500 µM	Inhibition of proteolytic enzymes and restriction of starch metabolism, leading to the failure of protein mobilization in seeds.	[73]
Ocimum basilicum L.	20 mg kg−1	Alterations in the embryo and reductions in the oil contents of seeds.	[74]
Brassica oleracea L.	5 mg L−1	Decreased seed germination with an increase in MDA contents, electrolyte leakage and H2O2 contents.	[75]
Sassafras tzumu Hemsl.	100 mg kg−1	Restricted seedling growth and germination, and impairment of photosynthesis at higher doses.	[63]
Brassica juncea L.	15 mg kg−1	Disintegration occured in roots and shoots, and levels of ROS increased in plant shoots.	[76]
Oryza sativa L.	50 μM	Lower seed germination rate due to the hyperaccumulation of Cd.	[53]
Zea mays L.	100 mg kg−1	Reduced seedling growth and activity of cellular antioxidants.	[77]
Growth and development
Cicer arietinum L.	50 μM	Reduction in growth and appearance of symptoms of necrosis and chlorosis in leaves.	[78]
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk		Reduced growth and development of root and shoots.	[79]
Lens culinaris	50 µg g−1	Increased electrolyte leakage and ROS production, resulting in lower plant growth.	[80]
Medicago sativa L.	10 mg kg−1	Higher concentrations damaged proteins, changed cell wall infrastructure and metabolism, and limited growth.	[81]
Osmolytes and photosynthesis
Cajanus cajan L.	10 mg kg−1	Lower organic osmolytes ultimately caused a disturbance in osmotic adjustments.	[82]
Vigna angularis	64 mg L−1	Cellular antioxidants decreased at higher concentrations, resulting in the lower production of low-molecular-weight osmolytes.	[83]
Zea mays L.	150 μM	Reduction in photosynthetic pigments and gas exchange traits.	[58]
Coriandrum sativum L.	20 µM L−1	Inhibited gas exchange traits and biochemical processes.	[45]
Capsicum annuum L.	500 ppm	Induction of stomatal closure, resulting in decreased photosynthetic pigments, a smaller stomatal size and reduced transpiration.	[84]
Mentha arvensis	150 mg Kg−1	Reductions in mineral assimilation, photosynthetic attributes and photosynthetic pigments occurred.	[85]