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. 2023 Sep 9;23:547. doi: 10.1186/s12877-023-04263-9

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Frequency of significant associations between each CR operationalization technique and five cognitive domain outcomes (4A) and boxplots of the strength of the associations (effect sizes) between CR operationalization techniques and late-life cognition for the five cognitive domains (4B). Dotted lines separate proxy categories from measurement through questionnaires and the lifecourse CR score created in this study. OCRS: occupational cognitive requirements score; BMI: body mass index; CRIq: Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire; LEQ: Lifetime of Experience Questionnaire; CR: cognitive reserve