Table 1.

A brief history of AI/ML development interventions

Year	Intervention
1950	The paper by Alan Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”, proposed the concept of a “universal machine” capable of exhibiting intelligent behavior. 2
1956	The Dartmouth Conference marked the birth of AI as a field, bringing together leading scientists to discuss AI research and define its goals.3
1956	The Logic Theorist program, developed by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, was the first AI program to prove mathematical theorems.4
1957	Frank Rosenblatt’s Perceptron introduced the concept of a single-layer neural network capable of learning through a process called “perceptron learning.”5
1957	The General Problem Solver (GPS) program, developed by Newell and Simon, demonstrated an approach to problem-solving using symbolic reasoning.6
1972	The development of the PROLOG programming language by Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel brought about significant advancements in logic programming and knowledge representation.7
1976	The MYCIN system, developed by Edward Shortliffe, demonstrated expert systems in medical diagnosis, utilizing a rule-based approach. 8
1982	The R1/XCON system by Douglas Lenat and Randal Davis was a notable expert system used in configuring computer systems, showcasing the power of rule-based reasoning.9
1983	John McCarthy coined the term “artificial intelligence” and developed the Lisp programming language, which became a significant language for AI research.10
1983	The CYC project, led by Douglas Lenat, aimed to create a vast knowledge base encompassing common-sense reasoning and understanding.11
1988	The Backpropagation algorithm, proposed by Paul Werbos, enabled efficient training of multi-layer neural networks.12,13
1997	Deep Blue, developed by IBM, defeated world chess champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match, showcasing the potential of AI in complex strategy games. 14
1998	The LeNet-5 architecture by Yann LeCun et al revolutionized the field of computer vision and became a fundamental model for image recognition tasks.15
2009	The ImageNet project, led by Fei-Fei Li, introduced a large-scale dataset and benchmarks for training deep convolutional neural networks for image classification.16
2011	Watson, an AI system created by IBM, won the Jeopardy! Game show against human champions in 2011, demonstrating natural language processing and knowledge retrieval abilities.17
2012	The AlexNet architecture by Krizhevsky, Sutskever, and Hinton revolutionized image classification tasks and demonstrated the power of deep learning on GPUs.18
2016	AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, defeated the world champion Go player Lee Sedol, highlighting the advancements in machine learning and reinforcement learning.19
2017	DeepMind’s AlphaGo Zero surpassed the performance of the original AlphaGo by mastering the game Go through reinforcement learning without any human expert knowledge.20
2017	The Transformer model, introduced by Vaswani et al, revolutionized natural language processing tasks by enabling efficient attention-based sequence-to-sequence modeling.21
2018	Devin et al created the BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers), achieving phenomenal results in processing in multiple natural languages that included tasks, including question-answering and sentiment analysis.22
2019	OpenAI’s AlphaStar defeated professional human players in StarCraft II, showcasing the potential of reinforcement learning in complex real-time strategy games.23
2021	AlphaFold wins the CASP competition for predicting the 3D protein structure.24
2022	Organizations and initiatives, such as the Partnership on AI,25 OpenAI’s Charter,26 and the IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems,27 have emerged to address these challenges.
2023	ChatGPT arrives, bringing much controversy.28
2023	The FDA issues two papers disclosing how the FDA is encouraging the adoption and applying AI/ML in improving drug discovery and that more than 100 regulatory filings to date have employed AI/ML approaches.29 Also released is the FDA Guidance