Table 4.

Key study findings related to race and ethnicity and results of quality appraisal assessment

Author∼, Year	Racial/ethnic groups*	Findings ‡	Quality
Asher AL, et al., 2017	• White • African American • Other race	• African American participants significantly less likely to RTW following lumbar spine surgery compared to white participants (Hazard ratio [HR] = 0.71; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.62–0.82) • Other race groups were significantly less likely to RTW following lumbar spine surgery compared to white participants (HR = 0.82; 95% CI 0.67-1.0)	Medium
Ben-Shalom Y, Mamun AA, 2015;	• White non-Hispanic • Black non-Hispanic • Hispanic • Other or unknown race	• Black disability insurance beneficiaries more likely to be enrolled in employment services compared to those who were non-Hispanic white (β = 0.014, p < 0.001) • Black disability insurance beneficiaries more likely to start (β = 0.026, p < 0.001) and complete (β = 0.023, p < 0.001) trial work period compared to those who were white • Hispanic disability insurance beneficiaries less likely to be enrolled in employment services when compared to those who were non-Hispanic white (β= -0.0080, p < 0.05) • Other or unknown race disability insurance beneficiaries less likely to be enrolled in employment services when compared to non-Hispanic white participants (β= -0.011, p < 0.001)	High
Blinder V, et al., 2013 (a) Blinder V, et al., 2012 (b)	• Latina • Non-Latina white	• Latina participants more likely to report not returning to work (a)/not being employed at only six months (Odds ratio [OR] = 0.31, 95% CI 0.12–0.81) and 18 months (OR = 0.73, 95% CI 0.27-2.0) following breast cancer diagnosis when compared to non-Latina white participants (b) • The difference between Latina participants and non-Latina participants was not significantly different at 36 months (53% vs. 59%) (b)	Medium
Bradley CJ, Wilk A., 2014	• Non-Hispanic white • African American	• African American participants with breast cancer significantly less likely to be employed at two months following cancer diagnosis (69%) when compared to non-Hispanic white participants (85%) (Odds ratio [OR] = 0.43, 95% CI 0.26–0.71) • African American participants with breast cancer more likely to report fewer work hours at nine months following baseline survey (-4.3%) when compared to non-Hispanic white participants (-2.9%) (β= = -2.1, p < 0.05)	Medium
Busch et al., 2009	• White • Black • Other	• Black participants less likely to be employed 12 months following a stroke (30%) when compared to white participants (OR = 0.41; 95% CI 0.19–0.88)	Medium
Carrougher GJ, et al., 2020	Race • White • Black • American Indian/Alaska Native • Asian • Other • multiracial • Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander Ethnicity • Hispanic/ Latino • Non-Hispanic/ non-Latino	• White race, non-Hispanic ethnicity participants with a burn injury were more likely to be employed at 12 months than those who were non-white race or Hispanic ethnicity (OR = 1.6, 95% CI 1.1–2.3)	Medium
Chibnall JT, Tait RC, 2009	• Caucasian • African American	• Caucasian participants with low back pain (67%) were significantly more likely than African American participants to be employed six years post workers’ compensation settlement (57%) when compared to (OR = 1.6 95% CI 1.0- 2.5) • African American participants with low back pain were more likely to receive Social Security Disability Insurance (39%) when compared to Caucasian participants (25%) (OR = 2.0 95% CI 1.3–3.2)	High
Chibnall JT, et al., 2005 (a) Tait RC, et al., 2004 (b)	• Caucasian • African American	• African American participants with occupational back injuries were significantly more likely to report post-settlement financial struggle compared to Caucasian participants (β = 0.12, p < 0.001) (a) • African American participants with occupational back injuries reported shorter claim periods compared to Caucasian participants (18.2 months vs. 23.2 months) (β = -0.14, p < 0.0001) (b) • African American participants with occupational back injuries were less likely to receive a temporary disability payment (21%) compared to Caucasian participants (42%) (OR = 0.45, 95% CI 0.30–0.60) (b)	High
Friedman LS, Ruestow P, Frost L., 2012	• White • Hispanic • Other race • Black	• Black ($47,935.00), Hispanic ($48,519.00) and other race ($43,048.00) participants awarded lower total mean monetary workers’ compensation settlements following an injury compared to white participants ($60,431.00) • Black (21.8 days) Hispanic (26.7 days) participants reported shorter mean temporary work disability days than white participants (29.5 days)	High
Khan I, et al., 2019	• Caucasian • African American • Other race	• African American participants (6.2%) were significantly less likely to RTW following lumbar spine surgery when compared to Caucasian participants (91%) (OR = 0.60, 95% CI 0.50–0.80) • Among those with favorable surgical outcomes, there was no significant RTW difference between Caucasian, African American participants, and other racial participants (X2 = 1.1, P = 0.059)	High
MacKenzie EJ, et al., 2006	• White • Non-white	• White participants were significantly more likely to RTW at 84 months post major limb trauma when compared to non-white participants (Relative Rate Ratio [RR] = 1.8, 95% CI 1.2–2.7)	Medium
Marom BS, et al., 2020 (a) Marom BS, et al., 2018 (b)	• Jewish • Arab	• No significant difference between Arab (71%) and Jewish (80%) participants when comparing time to RTW following hand injury (HR = 1.2, 95% CI 0.76-2.0) (b) • Difference between Arab (29%) and Jewish participants (46%) in employment status at three months following hand injury was not significant when adjusting for legal counsel, educational attainment, and disability severity (OR = 1.1, 95% CI 0.46–2.5) (a)	Medium
Meade MA, et al., 2004	• White • African America	• African American participants were significantly less likely to be employed at 12 months (5.9%) post-spinal cord injury when compared to white participants (16%) • The racial difference in employment following spinal cord injury persisted across the descriptive follow-up period (β=-1.2, p < 0.001)	High
Pham TN, et al., 2020	• Caucasian • Non-Caucasian	• Non-Caucasian ethnicity was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of RTW when compared to Caucasian participants after burn injury (period post-follow-up not reported) (OR = 0.16–0.35 (depending on ethnicity), 95% CI 0.040–0.89)	Medium
Sanchez KM, Richardson JL, Mason HRC, 2005	• White • Black • Hispanic	• Black (OR = 1.08, 95% CI 0.41–2.81) and Hispanic (OR = 1.47, 95% CI 0.50–4.27) ethnicity not significantly associated with delayed RTW following colorectal cancer diagnosis when compared to white participants	High
Savitsky B, et al., 2020 (a) Savitsky B, et al., 2020 (b)	• Other Israelis • Israeli Arabs • Immigrants from former Soviet Union • Ethiopian Immigrants	• Israeli Arabs significantly more likely to report non-RTW at one-month post-injury (53%) when compared to the other Israeli group (33%) (OR = 1.6, 95% CI 1.5–1.7) • There was no significant difference in the likelihood non-RTW at one-month post-injury when comparing Ethiopian Immigrants (43%) and the other Israeli group (33%) (OR = 0.96, 95% CI 0.81–1.14) • Israeli Arabs significantly more likely to report non-RTW at one-year post-injury (20%) when compared to the other Israeli group (8.8%) (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.8–2.1) • There was no significant difference in the likelihood non-RTW at one-year post-injury when comparing Ethiopian Immigrants (14%) and the other Israeli group (8.8%) (OR = 1.22, 95% CI 0.97–1.14) • Israeli Arabs significantly more likely to report non-RTW within 2 years post-injury (14%) when compared to the other Israeli group (5.7%) (OR = 2.1, 95% CI 1.9–2.3) • There was no significant difference in the likelihood non-RTW at one-year post-injury when comparing Ethiopian Immigrants (9.6%) and the other Israeli group (5.7%) (OR = 1.25, 95% CI 0.92–1.70) • Israeli Arabs (HR = 1.4, 95%CI 1.3–1.4) and Ethiopian immigrants (HR = 1.2, 95% CI 1.1–1.3) experience a longer duration of stay out of work compared to other groups of Israeli workers	High
Skolarus LE, et al., 2016	• Mexican Americans • Non-Hispanic white	• Mexican American participants were significantly less likely to RTW following a stroke (31%) when compared to non-Hispanic white participants (50%) (OR = 0.85, 95% CI 0.32–2.2) • Relationship between being Mexican American being less likely to RTW was non-significant in model which also included educational attainment and level of impairment	Medium
Strong LL, Zimmerman FJ, 2005	• Non-Hispanic white • Hispanic • African American	• Hispanic male workers missed more mean workdays (38 days) due to injury or illness than male non-Hispanic white workers (28 days) but the relationship was not significant at the multivariable level (OR = 1.1, 95% CI 0.84–1.5); No significant differences were observed between Hispanic and non-Hispanic white female workers • African American male (30.9 days) missed more mean workdays due to injury or illness than non-Hispanic white male (28.1 days) (OR = 0.83, 95% CI 0.64–1.1) • African American female workers missed more mean workdays (45.2 days) due to injury or illness than non-Hispanic white female workers (24.0 days) but the relationship was not significant at the multivariable level (OR = 1.0, 95% CI = 0.77–1.4)	High
Tait RC, Chibnall JT, 2000	• Caucasian • African American	• In the absence of legal representation, African American participants indicated significantly lower temporary total disability costs related to low back pain when compared to Caucasian participants (F (1, 126) = 4.4, p < 0.05). This relationship did not hold in the presence of legal representation.	High

Notes: * = As described by authorship team; ~ = presented in alphabetical order; ‡ = Findings presented are those from finalized multivariable models presented in the author’s manuscript; CI = confidence interval