Table 3.

Properties of hAM with different forms.

Characteristics	Specific features	Forms	Mechanism	Study mode	Reference
Mechanical properties	Elasticity	Intact hAM	Young's modulus (Full term hAM: 2.29 MPa; preterm hAM: 3.6 MPa)	In vitro	[13]
	Stiffness	Intact hAM	Elastic modulus: 4.048 ± 1.702 MPa	In vitro	[110]
	Tensile strength	Dehydrated hAM	5.475 ± 0.135 MPa	In vitro	[111]
	Stiffness	Decellularized hAM	Elastic modulus higher than native hAM	In vitro	[28]
Biological properties	Antimicrobial effect	Intact hAM	Expression of elafin, HBD-2/3, and cathelicidin LL-37	In vivo	[112]
	Antimicrobial effect	Cryopreserved hAM	Expression of HBD-2/3	In vivo	[113]
	Antimicrobial effect	hAM extract	Secretion of antimicrobial proteins and peptides	In vitro and in vitro	[114]
	Antimicrobial effect	hAM homogenate	Expression of β-defenses	In vitro	[115]
	Antiviral effect	Intact hAM	Expression of IL-1RA	Clinical cases	[117]
	Antiviral effect	Intact hAM	Inhibition of inflammatory response	Clinical cases	[118]
	Anti-fibrotic effect	hAM extract	Reversion to the fibroblast phenotype	In vitro	[122]
	Anti-scarring effect	Intact hAM	Antagonizing the effect of TGF-β	In vitro	[123]
	Anti-inflammatory effect	Decellularized hAM	Suppression of IL-1α/1β	In vitro	[125]
	Anti-inflammatory effect	Intact hAM	Trapping inflammatory cells	Clinical cases	[126]
	Low immunogenicity	Intact hAM	Expression of HLA-G and Fas ligand	In vivo	[127]
	Immunomodulatory effect	Intact hAM	Proliferation and induction of immune cells	In vitro	[128]
	Anti-angiogenesis effect	Flesh hAM	Secretion of collagen IV, laminin, and integrins 4/6	In vivo	[130]
	Anti-angiogenesis effect	Intact hAM	Secretion of endostatin, thrombospondin-1, and TIMP-1/2/3/4	Clinical trial	[131,132]
	Angiogenesis effect	Intact hAM	Secretion of fibronectin	In vitro	[133]
	Angiogenesis effect	Decellularized hAM	Enhancing PECAM-1 and VE-cadherin expression	In vitro	[134]
	Support cell growth and adhesion	Decellularized hAM	Expression fibronectin, laminin, collagens, and proteoglycans	In vitro	[135]