Table 1.
Moderator analysis of psychological inoculation against misinformation for different intervention strategies, intervention types, themes, measurement time, teams, and intervention designs.
| Outcome and moderator | Cohen d (95% CI) | k | Q | P value | I2, % | |||||||
| Misinformation credibility assessment | ||||||||||||
|
|
Main effect | –0.36 (–0.50 to –0.22) | 31 | N/Aa | N/A | 93 | ||||||
|
|
Intervention type | 1.26 | .26 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Active | –0.27 (–0.36 to –0.18) | 15 |
|
|
84 | |||||
|
|
|
Passive | –0.43 (–0.68 to –0.17) | 16 |
|
|
95 | |||||
|
|
Intervention strategy | 1.70 | .19 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Content | –0.26 (–0.36 to –0.15) | 10 |
|
|
60 | |||||
|
|
|
Technology | –0.41 (–0.60 to –0.21) | 21 |
|
|
95 | |||||
|
|
Theme | 0.84 | .10 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Health | –0.28 (–0.41 to –0.15) | 9 |
|
|
77 | |||||
|
|
|
Policy | –0.30 (–0.41 to –0.18) | 5 |
|
|
38 | |||||
|
|
|
Climate | –0.31 (–0.48 to –0.18) | 3 |
|
|
15 | |||||
|
|
|
Otherb | –0.43 (–0.71 to –0.14) | 14 |
|
|
97 | |||||
|
|
Measuring time | 4.13 | .12 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Immediately | –0.37 (–0.54 to –0.19) | 24 |
|
|
94 | |||||
|
|
|
One week | –0.43 (–0.62 to –0.23) | 4 |
|
|
55 | |||||
|
|
|
Two weeks or more | –0.19 (–0.34 to –0.04) | 3 |
|
|
0 | |||||
|
|
Team | 0.66 | .42 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Van der Linden | –0.29 (–0.39 to –0.20) | 16 |
|
|
84 | |||||
|
|
|
Other | –0.41 (–0.68 to –0.14) | 15 |
|
|
95 | |||||
|
|
Intervention design | 3.84 | .05 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Post only | –0.21 (–0.28 to –0.15) | 19 |
|
|
69 | |||||
|
|
|
Pre-post | –0.53 (–0.85 to –0.22) | 12 |
|
|
96 | |||||
| Real information credibility assessment | ||||||||||||
|
|
Main effect | 0.20 (0.06 to 0.33) | 26 | N/A | N/A | 93 | ||||||
|
|
Intervention type | 13.22 | <.001 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Active | –0.03 (–0.16 to 0.11) | 11 |
|
|
89 | |||||
|
|
|
Passive | 0.38 (0.20 to 0.55) | 15 |
|
|
92 | |||||
|
|
Intervention strategy | 7.81 | .005 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Content | 0.40 (0.18 to 0.62) | 11 |
|
|
93 | |||||
|
|
|
Technology | 0.04 (–0.08 to 0.17) | 15 |
|
|
87 | |||||
|
|
Theme | 25.52 | .001 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Health | 0.05 (–0.15 to 0.25) | 7 |
|
|
88 | |||||
|
|
|
Policy | 0.06 (–0.05 to 0.18) | 2 |
|
|
0 | |||||
|
|
|
Climate | 0.57 (0.39 to 0.75) | 6 |
|
|
95 | |||||
|
|
|
Otherb | 0.50 (0.13 to 0.88) | 11 |
|
|
83 | |||||
|
|
Team | 2.63 | .11 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Van der Linden | 0.09 (–0.14 to 0.31) | 13 |
|
|
96 | |||||
|
|
|
Other | 0.30 (0.18 to 0.42) | 13 |
|
|
72 | |||||
|
|
Intervention design | 0.08 | .78 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Post only | 0.20 (0.11 to 0.29) | 18 |
|
|
75 | |||||
|
|
|
Pre-post | 0.14 (–0.26 to 0.54) | 8 |
|
|
98 | |||||
| Credibility discernment | ||||||||||||
|
|
Main effect | 0.20 (0.13 to 0.28) | 12 | N/A | N/A | 65 | ||||||
|
|
Intervention design | 7.19 | .007 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Post only | 0.26 (0.17 to 0.35) | 7 |
|
|
69 | |||||
|
|
|
Pre-post | 0.09 (0.00 to 0.17) | 5 |
|
|
0 | |||||
| Misinformation sharing intention | ||||||||||||
|
|
Main effect | –0.35 (–0.79 to 0.09) | 12 | N/A | N/A | 98 | ||||||
|
|
Intervention type | 1.33 | .25 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Active | –0.09 (–0.14 to –0.05) | 9 |
|
|
0 | |||||
|
|
|
Passive | –1.11 (–2.83 to 0.62) | 3 |
|
|
99 | |||||
|
|
Theme | 0.49 | .78 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Health | –0.19 (–0.30 to –0.08) | 4 |
|
|
58 | |||||
|
|
|
Policy | –0.20 (–0.36 to –0.04) | 1 |
|
|
|
|||||
|
|
|
Otherb | –0.47 (–1.24 to 0.31) | 7 |
|
|
99 | |||||
|
|
Team | 1.45 | .23 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Van der Linden | –0.08 (–0.13 to –0.04) | 8 |
|
|
0 | |||||
|
|
|
Other | –0.88 (–2.17 to 0.41) | 4 |
|
|
99 | |||||
|
|
Intervention design | 1.06 | .30 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Post only | –0.12 (–0.18 to 0.06) | 9 |
|
|
54 | |||||
|
|
|
Pre-post | –1.05 (–2.82 to 0.72) | 3 |
|
|
99 | |||||
| Real information sharing intention | ||||||||||||
|
|
Main effect | 0.09 (0.09 to 0.16) | 11 | N/A | N/A | 55 | ||||||
|
|
Intervention type | 8.98 | .003 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Active | 0.06 (–0.00 to 0.11) | 3 |
|
|
33 | |||||
|
|
|
Passive | 0.25 (0.14 to 0.36) | 8 |
|
|
7 | |||||
|
|
Intervention strategy | 8.98 | .003 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Content | 0.25 (0.14 to 0.36) | 8 |
|
|
7 | |||||
|
|
|
Technology | 0.06 (–0.00 to 0.11) | 3 |
|
|
33 | |||||
|
|
Theme | 0.72 | .40 |
|
||||||||
|
|
|
Health | 0.15 (–0.01 to 0.30) | 5 |
|
|
71 | |||||
|
|
|
Other | 0.07 (0.01 to 0.13) | 6 |
|
|
30 | |||||
aN/A: not applicable.
bOther included hybrid themes or studies without a theme.