Table 2. Applications of the Techniques by Which BTE Scaffolds Are Prepareda.
| Formation technique | Composition | Remarks | Biological activity | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electrospinning | PLA/PGS | Mat for cardiovascular diseases | Cardiomyocyte morphology similar to that in the natural environment | (422) |
| PLLA, PLLA/HA, PLLA/collagen/HA | Composites for bone tissue engineering | hFOB 1.19 cells had a higher proliferation rate and increased ALP activity in a PLLA/collagen/HA system | (423) | |
| PCL/PGS | The different solvents used for fiber preparation showed no cytotoxicity | Human cardiomyocytes, cytotoxicity | (424) | |
| TIPS | PLLA/β-TCP | Interconnected, hierarchical pore structures with a high porosity and compressive modulus in comparison to pristine PLLA scaffolds | Enhanced osteoblast (MG-63 cell) proliferation, penetration, and ECM deposition | (143) |
| PDLLA/45S5 bioglass | Anisotropic, bimodal pore architecture, >90% porosity | – | (425) | |
| PLGA/HA | Mechanical properties and water sorption enhanced by HA addition | Significantly higher rabbit MSC proliferation on the PLGA/HA scaffold in comparison to that on the pure PLGA scaffold | (426) | |
| FFF | PDA-coated PLA scaffold | Facile route for BTE scaffold manufacturing: FDM printing + immersion coating; the PLA scaffold was more hydrophobic than the PDA-coated scaffold | PDA-coated PLA scaffolds allowed hADSC cells to adhere and grow better than the unmodified PLA scaffolds | (176) |
| PCL | Indicates PCL is an important allogenic material in the field of reconstructive craniofacial surgery | Successful reconstruction of craniofacial defects regarding new bone formation | (178) | |
| PLA | PLA maintained a semicrystalline structure even though the polymer chains were shortened and thermal degradation profile had changed | Printed PLA scaffolds were proven to be biocompatible and allowed bone cell colonization | (427) | |
| SLS | PCL/HA | Gradient architecture with interconnected porosity and the desired mechanical properties | Excellent biocompatibility, induction of osteochondral repair in vivo | (428) |
| CaP/PHBV and CHAp/PLLA | Sintered scaffolds with a biodegradable osteoconductive calcium phosphate matrix; gradual decrease in mechanical properties after immersion in PBS | In SaOS-2 cell culture, CaP facilitated ALP expression on both materials; no significant difference in proliferation or ALP activity between the CHA/PLLA nanoscaffold and PLLA scaffold | (429) | |
| PVA | Periodic, porous architecture; PVA is vulnerable to high laser power for SLS | Successful growth and adaptation of MG-63 cells | (184) | |
| SLA | PCL/HA | Gradient architecture with interconnected porosity and the desired mechanical properties | Excellent biocompatibility, induction of osteochondral repair in vivo | (428) |
| CaP/PHBV and CHA/PLLA | Sintered scaffolds with osteoconductive calcium phosphate and a biodegradable matrix; gradual decrease in mechanical properties after immersion in PBS | In SaOS-2 cell culture, CaP facilitated ALP expression on both materials; no significant difference in proliferation or ALP activity between the CHA/PLLA nanoscaffold and PLLA scaffold | (429) | |
| PVA | Periodic, porous architecture; PVA is vulnerable to high laser power for SLS | Successful growth and adaptation of MG-63 cells | (184) | |
| Melt mixing/extrusion | PLLA/HA | Composites were extruded and patterned using a femtosecond laser | Human osteoblasts (ATCC CRL-11372 cells) were cultured on the laser-modified surface | (430) |
| PLLA/HA | Composites extruded using co-rotating twin-screw extruder and irradiated using a CO2 laser | Not tested | (431) | |
| PLLA | PLLA foil extruded using a conical single screw extruder and irradiated using a UV laser | Not tested | (432) | |
| PLLA/HA | Composites extruded using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder | Human adipose-derived stromal cells (hASCs) | (433) |
a
Abbreviations: poly(d,l-lactide), PDLLA; poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), PLGA; calcium phosphate, CaP; carbonated hydroxyapatite, CHA; poly(hydroxybutyrate–cohydroxyvalerate), PHBV; phosphate-buffered saline, PBS; alkaline phosphatase, ALP; poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA.