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. 2023 Aug 2;475(10):1133–1147. doi: 10.1007/s00424-023-02845-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — The cortico-basal ganglia-cerebellar-thalamo-cortical network. Movement formation is controlled by the motor circuitry, where the cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and thalamus are interconnected and partly linked via collaterals, forming feedforward and feedback loops. Three pathways can be distinguished from each other: (1) the direct pathway, responsible for desired movements; (2) the indirect pathway is classically seen as a damping mechanism for undesired movements; and (3) the hyperdirect pathway, which bypasses the striatum and forms a monosynaptic connection from cortical areas to STN, mediating rapid movement inhibition. The green arrows represent glutamatergic inputs, the dark blue arrows represent dopaminergic inputs, and the red arrows represent inhibitory GABAergic inputs. The scaling of the nuclei is larger than the real anatomical sizes. Abbreviations: D1/D2, dopaminergic receptors class 1/2; STN, subthalamic nucleus; GPe/GPi, globus pallidus externus/internus; SNr/SNc, substantia nigra pars reticulata/compacta; VA, ventral anterior thalamic nucleus; VL, ventrolateral thalamic nucleus; VM, ventromedial thalamic nucleus; VA-VL-VM are part of the ventral motor thalamic nuclei (in red); CM-Pf, thalamic center median/parafascicular complex (figure created with BioRender.com)