Table 1.
Examples of different types of materials used to mimic ECM.
| Biomaterials | Method of fabrication | Cell types | Specifications |
|---|---|---|---|
| PEG | Soft lithography | CMs | Alignment of the focal adhesions [258] |
| PS | Soft lithography | Human AM-MSCs + mouse ESCs | Early differentiation of mESCs and heterogeneous cells [259] |
| PHB | Electrospinning | MSCs, CMs, CFs | Induced angiogenesis, reparative process and remodeling [260] |
| BSA/PVA | Electrospinning | Human MSCs | Cardiogenic differentiation of MSCs [261] |
| PMGI + heparin-binding peptide I | Electrospinning | HeLa, human PSCs | Enhanced HeLa cell attachment and potentiated CM differentiation of hPSCs [262] |
| PGS/gelatin | Electrospinning | CMs | Superior mechanical properties, enhanced CM beating properties [263] |
| PLGA + YIGSR | Electrospinning | Neonatal rat CMs | Higher expression of a myosin and b-tubulin, faster and latest longer contraction of CMs [264] |
| PCL + azacytidine | Electrospinning | Human MSCs | In vitro cardiac differentiation of hMSCs [265] |
| Cellulose + CS/SF | Electrospinning | AD-MSCs | Reduced ventricular remodeling post-MI [266] |
| PCL:PGA | Electrospinning | CPCs | Cell attachment and differentiation in vitro and support living cells in vivo [267] |
|
Porcine spinal cord-derived ECM PCL |
Electrospinning | human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) | ECM fiber scaffolds promote the migration of mature neurons after lesion; provide biochemical and topographical cues to guide the migration of mature neurons [268] |
| Fibronectin | Electrospinning | Bone murine stromal cells ST-2 cell line | Functionalizing PCL electrospun mats with fibronectin (surface entrapment method), resulting in the best cell response [2] |
| PCL | Electrospinning | Human osteoblast-like cells (MG-63) | Variation in surface characteristics leading to increased cell adhesion and collagen mineralization on porous fibers; Negative zeta potential of PCL sample promoted calcium mineralization crucial for tissue formation [269] |
| PEG-GelMA | Inkjet bioprinting | Bone marrow-derived human MSCs | Enhanced osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation; improved gene and protein expression analysis [270] |
| Collagen | Extrusion bioprinting | Human corneal epithelial cell line (HCE-T) | Cornea-like structure with keratocytes demonstrating high cell compatibility [271] |
| Hyaluronic acid | Extrusion bioprinting | Human glial cell | Brain microenvironment and Glioblastoma invasion [272] |
| Alginate- gelatin | Extrusion bioprinting | Animal fibroblast cells | Unique structures with varied naproxen coating, with increased tensile strength and biocompatibility [273] |
| GelMA | Extrusion bioprinting | Human ADSCs | GelMa substrates with Pore size and foamability are controlled by processing parameters [274] |
| HAMA | Extrusion bioprinting | Human bone marrow-derived MSCs | Increase in mechanical stiffness and long-term stability; Useful in creating porous and anatomically shaped scaffolds [275] |
| PCL | Extrusion bioprinting | Human bone marrow MSCs | Personalized and implantable hybrid active scaffolds for critical-size bone defects; Zigzag/spiral PCL cage proved to be mechanically strong with sufficient nutrient/gas diffusion [276] |
| Porcine skin-derived ECM Nano-hydroxyapatite Gelatin Quaterinized chitosan | Extrusion bioprinting | ADSCs, human bone marrow-derived MSCs and HUVECs | Antibacterial, hemocompatible, and biocompatible; Promoted cell attachment and proliferation, osteogenesis and vascularity regeneration [277] |
| Ovine aortic valve derived ECM Gelatin Alginate | Extrusion bioprinting | Ovine valvular interstitial cells | dECM hydrogel impaired HUVEC viability [278] |
| PEG8NB | SLA(DLP) bioprinting | Pancreatic cancer cells (COLO-357), NIH 3T3 fibroblasts, and mouse MSCs | High precision and cell compatibility. Enable the creation of diverse bioprinted constructs [279] |
|
Dental follicle-derived ECM GelMA |
SLA (DLP) bioprinting Extrusion bioprinting |
Human dental follicle cells | GelMA/dECM module promotes periodontal tissue regeneration; enhancement in bone–ligament interface fusion, and periodontal fiber alignment [280] |
|
PA/PBS PA/CaCl2 solution |
Self-assembly driven (shear） | Bone marrow-derived human mesenchymal stem cells | Ability to bundle and align microfibres and tube formation by constraint Assembly into microfibres [281] |
| Polymer-based hydrogels | Self-assembly driven (magnetic） | NIH 3T3 Mouse fibroblasts cell line | Cell-friendly and touch-free organization of microgels Compatibility with a range of materials + uses magnetism of cells directly [282] |
| Polymeric solution | Self-assembly driven (Liquid–Liquid attraction/Immiscibility) | NIH 3T3 Mouse fibroblasts cell line | Cell-friendly and touch-free organization of microgels Complex shapes through delicate interactions [283] |
| PA/ELP | Self-assembly driven (supramolecular） | Primary mouse- ADSCs and HUVEC | Self-driven assembly into a tubular shape Selective presentation and density of epitopes [284] |
Abbreviations: PEG- Poly(ethylene glycol); CM-cardiomyocytes; PS- Polystyrene; AM-MSC- Amniotic membrane-derived mesenchymal stem cells; ESC- embryonic stem cells; PHB-Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate); CF- Cardiac fibroblasts; BSA/PVA- Bovine Serum Albumin/Poly(vinyl alcohol); PMGI- Polymethylglutarimide; hPSC- human Pluripotent stem cells; PGS- Poly (Glycerol Sebacate); PLGA-Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); YIGSR- Tyr–Ile–Gly–Ser–Arg; PCL- Poly(ε-caprolactone); MSC- mesenchymal stem cells; CS/SF- Chitosan/silk fibroin; AD-Adipose tissue; PGA-Poly(glycolic acid); CPC-Cardiac progenitor cells; GelMA- Gelatin-Methacryloyl; HAMA- Hyaluronic acid methacrylate; ASC-Adipose stem cells; HUVEC- human umbilical endothelial cells; SLA-Stereolithography; DLP-Digital light processing; ECM-Extracellular matrix; dECM-decellularized extracellular matrix; PA-peptide amphiphiles; PBS- Phosphate-buffered saline; ADSC- primary mouse-adipose-derived stem cells. ; ELP- Elastin-like polypeptide.