Table 2.

Applications of the biofabrication of ECM-like substrates.

Organ	Application	Biomaterials	Biofabrication method	Important findings	References
Brain	In vitro neural wiring model	GelMA	Extrusion-based Bioprinting	•Development of a reproducible method for differentiation of hiPSCs in highly pure sensory neurons (SN) •SN populations •confirmed to be able to detect external stimuli	[285]
	Neural stem cell transplantation	PEDOT:PSS with GelMA	Multistep fabrication method based on Top-down approach	•The model showed to enhance neuronal activity •Lower inflammatory responses in in vivo model of middle cerebral artery occlusion	[286]
Blood-brain barrier	BBB-on-a-chip model	Collagen-matrigel	Multistep fabrication method based on Top-down approach	•Promotion of cell growth of various types of cells •Promotion of the adhesion-associated intracellular signalling	[287]
	In vitro BBB model	PEG	Multistep fabrication method based on the top-down approach	•Low elastic modulus •Tunable mechanical properties of the substrate	[288]
Liver	In vitro liver model recapitulating native metabolic zonation	dECM	Freeze drying method	•Minimal thrombogenicity •Reduced foreign-body response •Enhanced pro-remodeling macrophage activation	[289]
	Liver-on-a-chip model	Collagen	Extrusion-based bioprinting	•Biofabrication of a liver-on-a-chip model using a one-step bioprinting process •Achieving spatial heterogeneity and complexity	[290]
Heart	Cardiac patches	Methacrylated type I collagen + carbon nanotubes	Micropatterning and extrusion-based bioprinting	•High viscoelasticity and electrical conductivity •Obtention of higher cellular proliferation, migration and differentiation	[291]
	Myocardial scaffold	rGO-incorporated GelMa	Multistep fabrication method based on Top-down approach	•Better cell viability, proliferation and maturation •Stronger contractility and faster spontaneous beating rate	[292]
Vascula-ture	Vascularized scaffod	Agarose/Alginate/Fibrin/Matrigel	Casting	•Achievement of perfusable vascular networks •The vascular channels can sustain metabolic function of primary rat hepatocytes	[199]
	Multi-scale vascular network	Gelatin	Extrusion-based bioprinting	•Construct larger fluidic vascular channels with a diameter of 1 mm •Enabling the formation of adjacent capillary networks through natural maturation	[208]
Bone	Bone scaffold	Collagen-apatire nanocomposite	Bottom-up crystallization method	•High regeneration properties and vascularization •Extracellular matrix Secretion of the ECM •Mineralization of rat bone marrow stem cells	[293]
	Cochlear implant	Electro-mimetic bone matrices	Extrusion-based bioprinting	•Achieving a tuneable electro-anatomy of the matrix •Developing a co-modeling approach based on 3D printing and machine learning •Predicting the cochlear tissue resistivity	[294]