Figure 1.

MVs formation and influence factors. (A) β-lactamase affects cell wall biosynthesis and ciprofloxacin causes DNA damage. (B) Biosynthetic imbalance, misfolded proteins buildup, leading to outer membrane protrusion. (C) Outer membrane stress is caused by abnormal iron-restricted phosphate transport, gentamicin and mucin. (D) Induction of SOS response by DNA damaging agents, UV rays, ciprofloxacin and other external circumstances resulting in “bubbling cell death.” (E) Insertion of hydrophobic molecules such as PQS and toluene, leading to altered outer membrane curvature. BioRender.com was used to create this.