Table 2.
Adjusted Odds Ratios for the Association Between Education, Income, Resilience, and Endorsement of a Positive Change (Weighted)
| Variable | Unadjusted models | Model 1-educationa | Model 2-incomeb | Model 3-resiliancec | Model 4-final modeld |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
| Educational attainment | p trend < .001 | p trend < .001 | p trend < .001 | ||
| No HS diploma | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||
| HS diploma/GED | 1.58 (0.95, 2.63) | 1.72 (0.96, 3.05) | 1.73 (0.88, 3.39) | ||
| Associates/vocational | 2.43 (1.52, 3.90)*** | 2.53 (1.45, 4.40)** | 2.62 (1.34, 5.10)** | ||
| Bachelors/graduate | 4.32 (2.68, 6.96)*** | 4.95 (2.81, 8.74)*** | 4.74 (2.42, 9.27)*** | ||
| Household incomee | p trend < .001 | p trend < .001 | p trend = .84 | ||
| <25,000 | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||
| 25,000–49,999 | 1.18 (0.86, 1.63) | 1.18 (0.83, 1.70) | 0.90 (0.59, 1.37) | ||
| 50,000–99,999 | 1.16 (0.85, 1.59) | 1.17 (0.82, 1.68) | 0.78 (0.52, 1.18) | ||
| ≥100,000 | 2.09 (1.50, 2.92)*** | 2.01 (1.38, 2.93)*** | 1.03 (0.67, 1.59) | ||
| Resilience scoref | 1.05 (0.99, 1.11) | 1.07 (1.01, 1.14)* | 1.05 (0.98, 1.11) | ||
| Age (continuous) | 0.97 (0.96, 0.98)*** | 0.98 (0.96, 0.99)** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)* | 0.98 (0.96, 0.99)** | 0.98 (0.96, 0.99)* |
| Gender | |||||
| Female | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Male | 0.68 (0.55, 0.82) | 0.61 (0.48, 0.76)*** | 0.61 (0.48, 0.77)*** | 0.65 (0.52, 0.82)*** | 0.58 (0.45, 0.74)*** |
| Race/ethnicity | |||||
| NH White | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Hispanic/Latinx | 0.84 (0.57, 1.23) | 0.94 (0.65, 1.37) | 0.81 (0.55, 1.20) | 0.80 (0.53, 1.21) | 1.01 (0.66, 1.55) |
| NH Blackg | 2.01 (1.4, 2.81)*** | 2.36 (1.70, 3.27)*** | 2.21 (1.59, 3.07)** | 2.10 (1.43, 3.06)*** | 2.50 (1.73, 3.60)*** |
| NH Otherh | 1.73 (0.93, 3.22) | 1.42 (0.70, 2.90) | 1.66 (0.80, 3.46) | 1.60 (0.74, 3.44) | 1.47 (0.63, 3.44) |
| Marital status | |||||
| Married | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Living with partner | 0.72 (0.42, 1.24) | 0.67 (0.38, 1.17) | 0.71 (0.41, 1.21) | 0.44 (0.21, 0.94)* | 0.50 (0.24, 1.08) |
| Never married | 0.84 (0.56, 1.27) | 0.62 (0.38, 1.01) | 0.72 (0.43, 1.19) | 0.70 (0.41, 1.20) | 0.61 (0.34, 1.08) |
| Separated/divorced | 0.83 (0.59, 1.16) | 0.66 (0.44, 1.01) | 0.78 (0.50, 1.21) | 0.60 (0.39, 0.93)* | 0.68 (0.43, 1.06) |
| Widowed | 0.71 (0.51, 0.98)* | 0.92 (0.60, 1.41) | 0.84 (0.55, 1.28) | 0.87 (0.58, 1.29) | 0.96 (0.61, 1.50) |
| Work affected by COVID-19i | |||||
| Not in work force | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| No | 1.12 (0.84, 1.51) | 1.02 (0.77, 1.38) | 0.94 (0.71, 1.25) | 0.95 (0.68, 1.32) | 0.97 (0.69, 1.35) |
| Yes | 1.92 (1.55, 2.34) | 1.31 (1.01, 1.70)* | 1.3 (0.99, 1.68) | 1.52 (1.17, 1.98)** | 1.3 (0.95, 1.66) |
| COVID disruption scorej | 1.12 (0.96, 1.30) | 1.15 (0.95, 1.39) | 1.1 (0.93, 1.39) | 1.14 (0.92, 1.41) | 1.1 (0.92, 1.37) |
Notes: GED = General Education Development; HS = high school; NH = non-Hispanic.
aModel 1 is the main effect of education adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, and COVID disruption score.
bModel 2 is the main effect of household income adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, and COVID disruption score.
cModel 3 is the main effect of resilience adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, and COVID disruption score.
dModel 4 is the full model containing education, household income, and resilience adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, and COVID disruption score.
eHousehold income was derived from unfolding brackets; those responding, “don’t know/refused” were asked the specific income question, “Would you say the income of your household was more or less than $50,000? Those responding less were asked, “Would you say the income of your household is more than $25,000 or less than $25,000?” and those responding more were, “Would you say the income of your household is more than $100,000 or less than $100,000?”
fResilience score was calculated from the 4-item trait resilience measure. Responses were summed to create a total resilience score ranging from 0 to 12, with higher scores representing greater resilience.
gNational Social Life, Heath, and Aging Project’s race question did not distinguish between African American and Black.
h Races categorized as Other were those who responded Native American/Alaskan Native (0.74%), Asian/Pacific Islander (2.0%), and Other (7.6%).
iRespondents were asked “Has your work been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic?” “Not working” capture those who were not working when the pandemic started.
jThe COVID disruption score was calculated by summing five dichotomous items: living alone, COVID-19-related deaths among friends/family, residential relocation of self, others moving in due to the pandemic, and pandemic effect on income. The disruption score ranged from 0 to 5, with higher scores representing greater disruption.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.