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. 2023 Sep 15;27:86. doi: 10.1186/s40824-023-00422-6

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Cell-laden 3D-bioprinted tissue engineered bone substitutes with excellent osteogenic potential for repairing bone defects. a In vitro osteogenic performances of GelMA hydrogel scaffold loaded with BMSCs and ECs prepared by 3D-bioprinting technology. b CLSM observation of the in situ 3D seeding of BMSCs and RAOECs. c In vivo bone repair effect of the cell-loaded GelMA hydrogel on a rat critical-sized calvarial defect model as confirmed by micro-CT evaluation. Images reproduced from [26], © 2022 Elsevier© 2022 American Chemical Society. d Graphic description of the 3D bioprinting, in vitro and in vivo experimental procedures used to test the hybrid hydrogel composed of GelMA/HAMA, alginate, GO, rBMMs, and rBMSCs. e Graphic illustration of the bioink composition in two channels. f Morphological characterization of different 3D bioprinted scaffolds. g In vivo bone regeneration of rat calvarial defects implanted with different hydrogel scaffolds. Images reproduced from [27], © 2022 American Chemical Society