TABLE 5.
Intake of almonds on cardiovascular and gut health, 2017–2023
| Reference | Study design | Study duration | Subject characteristics | n | Nut type, quantity | Control | Relevant outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cardiovascular health | |||||||
| Lee 2017 [33] | Randomized, 4-period crossover, controlled-feeding trial | 4 wk | OW and obese males and females (mean age 46 y) | 31 | Almond, 42.5 g/d | Isocaloric diet, excluding almonds | ↓ TC1, non-HDL-C1, LDL-C1, ApoB1, SysBP1, DiaBP1 No Δ in FMD |
| Liu 2017 [34] | Randomized, controlled trial | 16 wk | Healthy males and females (mean age 26 y) | 169 | Almond, 56 g/d, (1) premeal or (2) between meals | Isocaloric snack | ↓ TC1, LDL-C1, non-HDL-C1 |
| Bhardwaj 2018 [18] | Randomized, controlled, crossover trial | PP HFM | OW males and females (mean age 42 y) | 27 | Almond, 77 g | Walnut, 60 g | ↓ sVCAM1 ↑ FMD (nonsignificant) |
| Dhillon 2018 [35] | Randomized, controlled trial | 8 wk | Healthy males and females (mean age 18 y) | 73 | Almond, 56.7 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↓ TC1, HDL-C1, 1LDL-C No Δ in RHI, AIx, BP |
| Jung 2018 [36] | Randomized, controlled, crossover trial | 4 wk | OW and obese males and females (mean age 52 y) | 84 | Almond, 56 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↓ TC1, LDL-C1, non-HDL-C1 |
| Liu 2018 [37] | Randomized, controlled trial | 20 wk | Healthy males and females (mean age 27 y) | 85 | Almond, 56 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↓ DiaBP1, TC2, HDL-C2, LDL-C2, non-HDL-C2, TG2, VLDL-C2 |
| Bowen 2019 [38] | Randomized, controlled trial | 8 wk | OW and obese males and females at risk for T2DM (mean age 61 y) | 76 | Almond, 56 g/d | Isocaloric snack | Women only: ↓ TC:HDL-C ratio1 |
| Coates 2020 [39] | Randomized, controlled trial | 12 wk | OW and obese males and postmenopausal females (mean age 65 y) | 128 | Almond, 15% energy | Isocaloric snack | ↓ TG1, SysBP1 No Δ in ICAM-1, VCAM-1, SAC or LAC |
| Dikariyanto 2020 [40] | Randomized, controlled trial | 6 wk | Males and females at risk for CVD (mean age 56 y) | 105 | Almond, 20% of energy | Isocaloric snack | ↑ FMD2 ↓ LDL-C1, non-HDL-C1 No Δ TG, HDL-C or BP |
| Dikariyonto 2020 [41] | Randomized, controlled trial | 6 wk | Males and females at risk for CVD (mean age 56 y) | 105 | Almond, 20% of energy | Isocaloric snack | ↑ HRV1 |
| Palacios 2020 [42] | Randomized, controlled, crossover trial | 6 wk | OW and obese males and females with prediabetes (mean age 48 y) | 33 | Almond, 85 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↑ApoA1, HDL3-C1 |
| Gut health | |||||||
| Holscher 2018 [43] | Randomized, 5-arm crossover, controlled-feeding trial | 3 wk | Healthy males and females (mean age 57 y) | 18 | (1) Almond, 42 g/d (whole), (2) Almond, 42 g/d (roasted), (3) Almond, 42 g/d (roasted, chopped) (4) Almond butter, 42 g/d |
Exclusion of almonds | Chopped: ↑ Lachnospira1, Roseburia1, Oscillospira1 Whole: ↑ Dialister1 |
| Dhillon 2019 [44] | Randomized, controlled trial | 8 wk | Healthy males and females (mean age 18 y) | 73 | Almond, 56.7 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↑ alpha-diversity1 ↓ Bacteroides fragilis1 |
| Choo 2021 [45] | Randomized, controlled trial | 8 wk | OW and obese males and females at risk for T2DM (mean age 61 y) | 69 | Almond, 56 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↑ Ruminococcaceae1 |
| Creedon 2022 [46] | 3-arm, parallel-design randomized, controlled trial | 4 wk | Healthy males and females (mean age 28 y) | 79 | Almond, 56 g/d | Isocaloric snack | ↑ SCFA (butyrate)1 No Δ in bifidobacteria |
Includes human clinical trials that focus on only one functional food (ie, a single type of nut or berry) with outcomes of known physiologically relevant measures related to vascular function and gut health over the past 5 y (2017–2023). Excludes interventions using mixtures of different types of nuts or berries, nut- or berry-containing meals, and nut or berry extracts or oils. Also excludes interventions where nut or berry intake was in combination with other potentially confounding factors (ie, diet or lifestyle modifications including physical activity and dietary counseling).
Abbreviations: AIx, augmentation index; BP, blood pressure; CKD, chronic kidney disease; DiaBP, diastolic blood pressure; FMD, flow-mediated dilation; HDL-C, HDL cholesterol; HRV, heart rate variability; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1; IDL-C, IDL cholesterol; LAC, large artery compliance; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL:HDL, LDL cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol ratio; MAP, mean arterial pressure; MetS, metabolic syndrome; OW, overweight; oxLDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; PP HFM, postprandial high fat meal; PSV, brachial artery peak systolic velocity; SAC, small artery compliance; SBA, secondary bile acids; sVCAM-1, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; SysBP, systolic blood pressure; TC, total cholesterol; TC:HDL, total cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol ratio; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus; TG, triglycerides; TMAO, trimethylamine N-oxide; UM, urolithin metabotype; VLDL-C, VLDL cholesterol.
denotes statistical significance <0.05.
denotes statistical significance <0.001.