Extended Data Fig. 1. Comparison of human, environmental, and climate factors for reefs in Hawai‘i with coral reef ecosystems globally.

Dots represent global (light grey) and Hawai‘i (dark grey) mean values. Error bars represent the mean ± 2 standard deviation (SD). Factors presented are: a, Coral cover (per cent hard coral; global n = 2,584; Hawai‘i n = 137); b, Proportional reef area by country that is open (fished), gear restricted (restricted), or fully restricted (no-take) to fishing (sample number same as in a); c, Human population within 5 km in 2018 (global n = 54,596; Hawai‘i n = 199); d, Small-scale fisheries market gravity (number of people/(hours of travel)² represents human use and fishing pressure related to the size and accessibility of coral reefs to nearby human settlements and markets⁵⁹ (n = same as in c); e, Annual input of nitrogen (10³ kg) per watershed from wastewater pollution on coral reefs (global n = 38,033; Hawai‘i n = 324); f, Sediment input (10³ kg km⁻²) to coral reefs (n = same as in c); g, Annual number of tourist visits driven by coral reefs combining on-reef (e.g., recreational diving and snorkelling) and reef-adjacent (e.g., provision of calm waters, sand beaches, views, and seafood) aspects (sample number same as in c); h, Cumulative pressure score from stressors to coral reefs per 5 km reef containing pixel (unitless); i, Mean wave energy, or wave power (kW m⁻¹), from 1979–2009 (n = same as in a); j, Mean primary productivity (mg C m⁻² day⁻¹) between 2003–2013 (n = same as in a); k-l, Unitless metric of (k) historical (1985–2017) and (l) recent (2014–2017) thermal stress on coral reefs, whereby positive values represent more desirable (i.e., less thermal stress) over the respective time frames¹⁰⁵ (n = same as in c). The mean for reefs in Hawai‘i falls within 2 SD of the global mean for all factors. Data are from the following sources: a,b,i,j from¹⁰⁶ e from⁴⁸; c,d,f,g,h,k, from¹⁰⁷. Factors presented here were obtained from global datasets and will differ from those presented within our present study owing to the methodological differences as well as differences in their spatiotemporal extent and resolution.